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Moctezuma's headdress

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Moctezuma's headdress
MaterialFeathers of quetzal, Lovely cotinga, Roseate spoonbill, Piaya cayana, gold
Size116 cm (46 in) high, 175 cm (69 in) diameter
Present locationMuseum of Ethnology, Vienna, Austria
Identification10402VO

Moctezuma's headdress is a historical artifact that has been long disputed in terms of origin, patron, and function. The object's function was perhaps featherwork headdress or military device. In the Nahuatl languages, it is known as a quetzalāpanecayōtl (ketsalaːpaneˈkajoːtɬ).[1] Tradition holds that it belonged to Moctezuma II, the Aztec emperor at the time of the Spanish conquest.[1] The provenance of the headdresses remains uncertain,[2] and even its identity as a headdress has been questioned.[3] It is made of quetzal and other feathers with sewn-on gold detailing. The object has been in private Austrian collections since the end of the sixteenth century and is now in the Weltmuseum (World Museum) in Vienna, Austria and remains an issue of dispute between Austria and Mexico, as Mexico has asked for the return of the object.

Terminology

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In Mexico, Moctezuma's headdress is sometimes referred to as El Penacho de Moctezuma (Moctezuma's Headdress).[4] The word “penacho” is defined as feathers on top of a helmet.[5] Penacho featherwork was traditionally used in indigenous cultures, including the Aztecs, where intricate feathered pieces were used ceremonially and symbolic of status or power.[4] There is no known evidence that proves the headdress belonged to Moctezuma II.[6] However, it is recognized to have been a symbol of political and religious power in ancient Mexico and similar headdresses appear in Aztec monuments as part of the his ritual belongings.[6] This one is made primarily of quetzal and blue cotinga feathers.[6][7]

Possible function

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There have been many interpretations of the artifact's original function.[8] Some earlier theories proposed the headdress to be a fan, an apron, or even a mantle.[8] Scholars have suggested that the headdress derived its name from the traditional story of the meeting between Motecuhzoma and Hernán Cortés where he presumably gave the Conquistador diplomatic gifts of headdresses, gold and silver, and clothes to please Emperor Charles V.[1] Harvard art historian, Khadija von Zinnenburg Carroll, discusses the fact that there were many Aztec rulers throughout history who never wore the same crown twice, and so if there is only one crown left in existence, there is a very slim chance of actually knowing to whom it originally belonged.[9]

Some scholars have proposed that this kind of feather headdress was probably used as a military insignia instead of a crown.[1] As such, the headdress, made of feathers, gold, wood, and vegetable fibers, would have been placed on a bamboo stick and positioned on a distinguished soldier’s back.[1][10] Esther Pasztory has suggested that there is evidence that headdresses, such as this piece, were part of the Aztec royalty for ritualistic purposes, especially to be worn when impersonating the god Quetzalcoatl.[1] Davíd Carrasco and Eduadro Matos Moctezuma have written that according to reports, Moctezuma II had a special devotion and reverence for ceremonies, especially the New Fire Ceremony (Toxiuhmolpilia).[11]

The object's identification as a quetzalapanecayotl (a quetzal bird feather headdress) is attributed to American anthropologist Zelia Nuttall in her research paper "Standard or Head-dress?".[12][13] Nuttall put forth the theory that the objects represent a quetzal bird with its wings extended, tail pointing upwards, and head pointing downwards.[13] Furthermore, Esther Pasztory has claimed that a model of a headdress or a crown used by Motecuhzoma was depicted in the Codex Mendoza, a traditional Aztec manuscript.[1] This interpretation, linking the artifact to Moctezuma II directly, prompted the claim for its return to Mexico.[8]

Aztec cultural significance

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In Aztec folklore, Moctezuma II is often remembered not only as a ruler but as a figure whose reign marked the coinciding of divine prophecy and political power.[14][15] His association with Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent deity, imbues the headdress with a layer of religious and cultural symbolism.[14][15] The headdress, crafted with the feathers of sacred birds is a powerful emblem of this connection.[14][15] In the 20th century, the headdress gained increasing importance as a symbol of Mexico’s indigenous heritage.[15] During this time, it was reinterpreted as an "indigenist" icon that represents the grandeur of the Aztec Empire, aligning with Mexico’s efforts to establish a unique cultural identity distinct from its colonial past.[15] This nationalistic interpretation also influenced the calls for the artifact to be repatriated to Mexico.[14][15]

Danza de los Quetzales

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The Danza de los Quetzales was an ancient dance that originated from the legend of the quetzal, a mythological bird of Mesoamerica that was then considered by the Indians to be sacred and symbolic of the essence of beauty and elegance.[7] Moctezuma's headdress is told to have been formed from twenty four feathers captured at great peril from the long tails of the quetzals.[7] In the city of Puebla, located in central Mexico during the time of the Aztec Empire, performers trained for many months to personify the bird and illustrate the dignity, godliness, and grace that the Indians attribute to it.[7] There exists an idea that this was the home town of Moctemuza's headdress.[7] It is not impossible, as the Aztech Empire exerted significant influence over the broader central Mexican region, including Puebla.[7][16]

Provenance

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In the late nineteenth century, Austria established its first Museum of Natural History, with geologist Ferdinand von Hochstetter as its director. While searching for objects to display in the new museum, von Hochstetter found the headdress in Ambras Castle, Archduke Ferdinand’s former residence in Innsbruck, Austria.[17] At the beginning of the 19th century it was deposited in the Museum of Ethnology (inventory number 10402VO) in Vienna along with other ceremonial artifacts of Quetzalcoatl and Ehecatl.[18]

Although artifact exchanges and restitution of the headdress were negotiated with the Mexican government, a bilateral expert commission deemed the artifact too fragile for transport due to it's significant reaction to heat and movement, and thus recommended its remaining in Vienna.[9][19][20] In 2020, the Mexican government asked again for the restitution of the headdress, however it still resides in Vienna today.[3][21]

Late 17th-century portrayal of Moctezuma II, wearing a xiuhhuitzolli, which was the royal crown used by Mexica emperors.[22]

Description

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A headdress made of quetzal feathers, popularly referred to as Montezuma II's crown.

Moctezuma's headdress measures measures 130 by 178 centimeters.[23] It includes the green uppertail coverts of the quetzal bird, the turquoise feathers of the cotinga, brown feathers from the squirrel cuckoo, pink feathers from the roseate spoonbill, and small ornaments of gold.[23]

This artifact is in the form of concentric layers of different colored feathers arranged in a semicircle.[4][24][25] The smallest layer is made from blue feathers of the Cotinga amabilis (xiuhtōtōtl) with small plates of gold in the shapes of half moons.[4][24][25] Behind this layer is another a layer of Roseate spoonbill (tlāuhquechōlli) feathers, followed by small quetzal feathers, then a layer of white-tipped red-brown feathers of the squirrel cuckoo, Piaya cayana, with three bands of small gold plates, and finally two layers of 400 closely spaced quetzal (pharomachrus mocinno) tail feathers, some 55 cm (22 in) long.[4][24][25] The quetzal feathers in the center of the headdress are raised relative to the sides.[4][24][25] Leather straps attach the crown to the head of the wearer.[4][24][25]

The feathers of the original headdress have deteriorated over the centuries.[4][18] The headdress is made almost entirely out of organic materials that are susceptible to environmental conditions.[18] It remains intact but is quite fragile.[18] The feathers have experienced natural deterioration over the centuries, as well as the gold detailing and gold fibers.[18]

Depiction in Codex Cozcatzin of emperor Axayácatl wearing a battle standard and back device with a similar appearance to the apparent headdress.
Detail of Codex Borbonicus showing a dancer with a similar headdress during the festival of Xocotlhuetzi.

Though it likely served as a headdress, it has also been identified in other ways. As a headdress, its appearance matches that which is seen in contemporary Aztec codices being worn by priests during the festival of Xocotlhuetzi. However, its appearance also matches that of other kinds of objects also seen in contemporary depictions. In Codex Cozcatzin, emperor Axayácatl is depicted during the Battle of Tlatelolco wearing a quetzal-feathered battle standard and some sort of large device in the back, both of which have a similar appearance. In all situations, it appears that the object is associated with the deity Quetzalcoatl. Regardless, there is no direct evidence which suggests that it actually belonged to Moctezuma.[22]

Replica

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In 1940, a replica was made specifically for display in Mexico City.[26][27] The replica is currently displayed at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City, serving as a symbol of Mexico's Aztec heritage, allowing visitors to connect with an essential part of Aztec history while discussions about repatriation continue.[26][8][27][28]

Repatriation dispute between Mexico and Austria

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Efforts to identify the origins and cultural significance of the headdress have continued over the years.[29] Scholars and researchers have debated its provenance, questioning whether it was truly owned by "Moctezuma II" or served a broader ceremonial purpose in Aztec society.[30] The headdress, made of vibrant "Resplendent quetzal" feathers and adorned with gold, is considered a masterpiece of Mesoamerican craftsmanship.[27] Furthermore, the headdress remains a focal point of cultural heritage discussions, with Mexico frequently advocating for its return as part of ongoing repatriation dialogues.[27] These debates highlight the broader issues of colonial-era artifact displacement and the ethical considerations surrounding their modern-day ownership and display.[27][29][30]

Between 1992 and 2002, repeated protests by indigenous Mexica activists in Vienna demanded the return of the headdress.[8] The leading figure in these protests was an Aztec activist named Xokonoschtletl Gómora (Spanish name Antonio Gomora) who advocated for the artifact's repatriation.[8] The demonstrations escalated to the point that, in 1992, the police had to secure the entrance of the Museum of Ethnology.[8] Xokonoschtletl contacted parliamentarians in Mexico and Austria, carried out media campaigns, and even allegedly brought the case to the United Nations and the Pope. Some scholars argue that it was him who put the case to return the artifact into motion.[8] One of the official motives for wanting to return it was the recognition of the fact that Mexico had protested against Hitler’s invasion of Austria in 1938.[8]

Modern reproduction of Moctezuma's headdress, in the Museo Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City

Assessing preservation and transport feasibility

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In 2010, Mexico and Austria launched a research initiative to assess the condition of the headdress and explore the feasibility of loaning it to Mexico.[31] The study involved cleaning the artifact and examining methods to mitigate vibrations that could harm it during transit.[31] The findings determined that the headdress was too delicate to be transported.[31] The conclusion of the study has played a significant role in shaping discussions around the ownership of headdress's future.[32] While the artifact remains in Austria, the research project fostered a deeper collaboration between Mexican and Austrian experts, leading to advancements in conservation techniques.[32] It also reignited debates over the ethical and cultural implications of retaining such artifacts outside their countries of origin.[33] Despite the logistical challenges, Mexico continues to advocate for innovative solutions, such as virtual repatriation or temporary exhibitions within the framework of strict preservation protocols, to make the headdress accessible to its people.[32][33]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g Pasztory, Esther; Nicholson, H. B.; Keber, Eloise Quinones (1983). "Art of Aztec Mexico". Art Journal. 43 (4): 390. doi:10.2307/776739. ISSN 0004-3249. JSTOR 776739.
  2. ^ Johnson, Kayla (2021-08-17). "Austria Should Repatriate the Mexica Headdress". Hyperallergic. Retrieved 2024-12-12.
  3. ^ a b Rodríguez, Carmen Parra (2023-09-26), "EL ALCANCE DE LA PRIMERA VUELTA AL MUNDO EN LA GLOBALIZACIÓN", El viaje que nos unió. Estudios en torno a la primera vuelta al mundo., Dykinson, pp. 475–492, doi:10.2307/jj.8500829.26, ISBN 978-84-1170-575-2, retrieved 2024-11-13
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h van Bussel, G.W. (2017). Quetzal Feather Headdress. Vienna, Austria: KHM Museumsverband. pp. 1–54. ISBN 9783990201497.
  5. ^ "Penacho | Cambridge Dictionary".
  6. ^ a b c Fernández, María (1999). "Postcolonial Media Theory". Art Journal. 58 (3): 58–73. doi:10.2307/777861. ISSN 0004-3249. JSTOR 777861.
  7. ^ a b c d e f "Danza de los Quetzales / The Quetzals of Puebla / La Dance des "Quetzales" / Der Tanz Der "Quetzales"". Artes de México (88/89): 31. 1967. ISSN 0300-4953. JSTOR 24314263.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i The Gloss of Harmony: The Politics of Policy-Making in Multilateral Organisations. Pluto Press. 2013. doi:10.2307/j.ctt183p5j6. ISBN 978-0-7453-3374-8. JSTOR j.ctt183p5j6.
  9. ^ a b Penny, H. Glenn (2023-09-26). "Khadija von Zinnenburg Carroll. The Contested Crown: Repatriation Politics between Europe and Mexico ". The American Historical Review. 128 (3): 1536–1537. doi:10.1093/ahr/rhad334. ISSN 0002-8762.
  10. ^ Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel (2018-03-20). "Manuel Aguilar-Moreno. Review of "Golden Kingdoms: Luxury Arts in the Ancient Americas" by Joanne Pillsbury, Timothy F. Potts, and Kim N. Richter". Caa.reviews. doi:10.3202/caa.reviews.2018.79. ISSN 1543-950X.
  11. ^ Carrasco, Davíd; Moctezuma, Eduardo Matos, "Foreword", Networks of Power, University Press of Colorado, pp. xv–xviii, doi:10.2307/j.ctt46nvnt.5, retrieved 2024-12-04
  12. ^ Nuttall, Zeila (1892). "Sur le Quetzal-Apanecaiotl ou coiffure Mexicaine en plumes conservée à Vienne". In Congrès international des américanistes (ed.). Congrès international des américanistes, compte-rendu de la huitième session tenue à Paris en 1890 (in French). Paris: Leroux. pp. 453–459.
  13. ^ a b Troike, Nancy P. (September 1977). "Ethnology: The Codex Nuttall: A Picture Manuscript from Ancient Mexico. The Peabody Museum Facsimile Edited by Zelia Nuttall". American Anthropologist. 79 (3): 676–677. doi:10.1525/aa.1977.79.3.02a00400. ISSN 0002-7294.
  14. ^ a b c d Harris, Max (1996). "Moctezuma's Daughter: The Role of La Malinche in Mesoamerican Dance". The Journal of American Folklore. 109 (432): 149–177. doi:10.2307/541833. ISSN 0021-8715. JSTOR 541833.
  15. ^ a b c d e f Harris, Max (1997). "The Return of Moctezuma: Oaxaca's "Danza de la Pluma" and New Mexico's "Danza de los Matachines"". TDR (1988-). 41 (1): 106–134. doi:10.2307/1146575. ISSN 1054-2043. JSTOR 1146575.
  16. ^ "Indigenous Tlaxcala: The Allies of the Spaniards". Indigenous Mexico. Retrieved 2024-10-28.
  17. ^ "Mexico and Austria in dispute over Aztec headdress". prehist.org. 22 November 2012. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  18. ^ a b c d e Wien, Weltmuseum (2024-03-21). "Weltmuseum Wien: The feather headdress". www.weltmuseumwien.at. Retrieved 2024-11-25.
  19. ^ Izquierdo Expósito, Violeta (2014-12-11). "Análisis de la información artística en los medios escritos generalistas españoles (El País, El Mundo y ABC)". Estudios sobre el Mensaje Periodístico. 20 (2). doi:10.5209/rev_esmp.2014.v20.n2.47053. ISSN 1988-2696.
  20. ^ Corona, Sonia (2014-07-02). "El frágil penacho de Moctezuma". El País (in Spanish). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 2024-12-12.
  21. ^ "Penacho de Moctezuma: cómo terminó en Austria la pieza prehispánica que AMLO reclama al país europeo". BBC News Mundo (in Spanish). Retrieved 2024-12-12.
  22. ^ a b Olko, Justyna (2014). Insignia of Rank in the Nahua World: From the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Century. University Press of Colorado. pp. 37–38, 128–130, 181. ISBN 9781607322412.
  23. ^ a b Richter, Kim N. (2017). "Bright Kingdoms: Trade Networks, Indigenous Aesthetics, and Royal Courts in Postclassical Mesoamerica". In Pillsbury, Joanne; Potts, Timothy F.; Richter, Kim N.; J. Paul Getty Museum; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.); Pacific Standard Time: LA/LA (Project) (eds.). Golden kingdoms: luxury arts in the ancient Americas. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum and The Getty Research Institute. pp. 99–109. ISBN 978-1-60606-548-8.
  24. ^ a b c d e de Orellana, Margarita; Pope, Quentin; Moctezuma, Eduardo Matos; Nagao, Debra; Balderas, Ximena Chávez; Cué, Lourdes; León-Portilla, Miguel; Uriarte, María Teresa; Quirarte, Vicente; Adès, Timothy (2009). "THE AZTECS-MEXICA AND DEATH: A Rebirth of Gods and Men". Artes de México (96): 65–80. ISSN 0300-4953. JSTOR 24317808.
  25. ^ a b c d e Luján, Leonardo López; Chiari, Giacomo (2012). "Color in monumental Mexica sculpture". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. 61–62 (61/62): 330–342. doi:10.1086/RESvn1ms23647839. ISSN 0277-1322. JSTOR 23647839.
  26. ^ a b Mikanowski, Jacob (2017-09-26). "The Fight to Bring Home the Headdress of an Aztec Emperor". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 2024-11-25.
  27. ^ a b c d e Feest, Christian (2022). "Mexican Feather Shields and their Fate in Europe".
  28. ^ Feest, Christian F. (1990). Vienna's Mexican Treasures: Aztec, Mixtec and Tarascan Works from 16th-century Austrian Collections. Vienna: Museum für Völkerunde. OCLC 31874380.
  29. ^ a b Levine, Marc N. (July 2013). "A case study of Mesoamerican artifacts in museum collections and on the antiquities market". JSTOR. JSTOR 24408699.
  30. ^ a b Calderon Garza, Gabriela I. (2019). "Exploring the Issues of Repatriation, Reparation, and Restitution of Latin American Ancient Art and Antiquities". ProQuest. ProQuest 2234282613.
  31. ^ a b c "The Quetzal-Feather Headdress (Ancient Mexican feathered headdress)" (PDF). Weltmuseum Wien. Retrieved 13 Nov 2024.
  32. ^ a b c Feest, Christian F. "Vienna's Mexican Treasures". Research Gate.
  33. ^ a b Rozental, Sandra. "The Politics of Repatriation in Mexico". ProQuest. ProQuest 2741033293.
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