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A 19th-century war and ceremonial drum called junjung from the Kingdom of Sine.

The medieval history of the Serer people of Senegambia is partly characterised by resisting Islamization from the 11th century during the Almoravid movement (which would later result in the Serers of Takrur migration to the south)[1], to the 19th century Marabout movement of Senegambia[2][3][4] and continuation of the old Serer paternal dynasties but the end of the Wagadou maternal dynasty in favour of Guelowar in the 14th century.[5]

Opposition to the Almoravids

See also: Serer religion

Before the renaming of the kingdom of Sine in the 14th century,[6][7] the Sine area was populated by the Serers from the Kingdom of Takrur now called Fouta-Toro as well as the indigenous Serer people who have resided there for millenniums.[8][9][10] As one of the oldest inhabitants of the Senegambia region to which Takrur belonged,[11][12] they built civilisations there as well as in Mauritania, going back thousands of years, set up royal dynasties, political and legal frameworks as well as a priestly class who upheld the religious affairs of the region.[13]

After the Arab invasion of North Africa, the Berbers of the north advanced Islam via the Almoravid movement, penetrating parts of Africa, Europe and Asia.[14][15] In 1030 AD, the revolutionist King War Jabi (a part Toucouleur, part Bambara and Soninke) - son of Rabi and father of Leb came into power backed by his allies (the Almoravids) from the north particularly the cleric Abdallah ibn Yasin -, whom he had invited for advice and guidance and who would later come back to Takrur to form an alliance with his son Leb after War Jabi's own death in 1040 ad.[16] [17] Leb would also later form a coalition forces with another Almoravid Yahya Ibn Ibrahim whom he would send a contingent force to advance the Almoravids cause.[18] According to historians such as Ajayi, Crowder, etc., the Almoravid's hold on Tekrur and their ultimate contribution to the fall of the Ghana Empire could not have happened without the help of their African converts such as the Toucouleur and Fula who were part of the Almoravid army.[19][20][18] Mahmood (a Fula), who was previously nominated, elected and crowned king, although Muslim, he was not an orthodox one was dethroned by the revolutionist. In 1035 AD, King War Jabi introduced force conversion to Islam and sharia law which even became well enforced by his son Leb and their Almoravid allies after his death.[16][21][22][23][24] As a result of the new religious movement and Sharia law, the Toucouleur along with the Fula people were the first to convert to Islam and would also later join the Almoravid movement against the Ghana.[18][25][26][27][28]

The Serers resisted conversion and engaged in the battlefield to defend not only the Serer religion, but also their own power and wealth especially the Serer "Lamanic class" whose wealth and power is achieved through the Lamanic lineage.[29][30][31][32][33][34][35]

At Saly (c. 1035), the Serers of Takrur defeated the Almoravids and their African ally army forcing them to seek refuge in Mauritania. Though victorious in battles against the Muslim coalition army, they couldn't maintain it as the coalition forces advance and the Serers were finally defeated. After their defeat, the Serers of Takrur still rejected to convert to Islam and decided to abandoned Takrur instead to join their distant Serer relatives in the Sine.[36][37][38]

In the Sine, the Serers practised their religion and the nobility ruled by the title Maat[39] (also spelt "Maad" or "Mad" or "Laman" - synonymous to Maad denoting kings and landed gentry[40]). The ordinary Serer earned their living from agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, boat building (an ancient Serer tradition) and transporting people over the river.[41][42]

The jihads that had affected Tekrur in the 11th century which led to the Serers of Tekrur exodus only affected those Serers living in Tekrur at the time. It did not apply to all Serer people. The Serer people are very diverse and spread throughout the Senegambia founding towns and villages, the Serer names of these towns and villages still remain today.[43]

...the Serer traversed vast expanses of territory during pre-colonial times and saw the entire region [the Senegambia region] as their home, as their history of migration in the area clearly shows.

Godfrey Mwakikagile,[44]

The death of the Almoravid leader

By 1054, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar - one of the leaders of the Almoravids destroyed Aoudaghost of the Ghana Empire (proper: "Wagadou Empire")[45] and after the death of Yahya Ibn Ibrahim (another Almoravid leader), succeeded in capturing Kumbi Saleh, the capital of the Ghana Empire in 1076.[46][47] More recently however, scholars such as Hopkins and Levtzion have pointed out the clear lack of evidence to accompany such speculation and it has been argued instead that the Almoravids were merely political instigators with respect to the demise of Ghana.[48][49] After Ghana's demise, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar tried to get deeper into Senegal in the heart of Serer Country. In November 1087, the Serer King Ama Gôdô Maat, according to oral tradition, defeated Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar and he was killed by a poisoned arrow.[50] In the Serer tradition, Ama Gôdô Maat also known as Bur Haman by some, was a Serer king not a fugitive, Maat (or "Maad" also "Mad") is the title of the old Serer kings.[51][52][53][54][55][56]

Mansa Jolofing

In the Senegambia region, the Serer people divided the relevant areas into Lamanats[57] governed by Lamanes (kings, - descendants of ancient Serer kings and the landed gentry).[58][59][60] The Serer who have migrated from Tekrur to join their distant Serer relatives created a southward migration for Mandinka migrants. Godfrey Mwakikagile propose that, the Mandinkas were either defeated in battle or incorporated into Serer society.[61] The Serers ruled over the Wolof kingdom of Jolof. They were ruling Jolof before the Jaw, Ngom, Mengue (or Mbengue) and Njie dynasties (who were all Serers with the exeception of the Mengue dynasty who were Lebou - Mengue or Mbengue is a Lebou surname).[62] However, these Serer and Lebou rulers of Jolof (predominantly a Wolof area) became assimilated into Wolof culture. One of the Serer kings of Jolof referred to as Mansa Jolofing (also "Jolofing Mansa") meaning King of Jolof in the Mandinka language, was a Serer known for his involvement in the occult during the reign of Mansa Sundiata Keita of Mali in the 13th century. When Sundiata Keita sent his men to go to the Kingdom of Jolof to buy horses with a caravan loaded with gold, the Serer king of Jolof is reported to have ransacked the caravan, took all the gold as well as the horses. That incident is referred to as "the robbery of the horses". Having found out what happened, Sundiata Keita sent his cousin and general Mansa Tiramang Trawally (var : Tiramakhan Traore - future conqueror of Kaabu) to Jolof to assassinate the Serer king. Mansa Tiramakhan's victory over the king of Jolof is reported to have led to the Mandinka Subou song created to mark their victory over the Serer king of Jolof.[63][64]

Battle of Troubang

Further information: Lamane and Guelowar

The Guelowars were an off-shot and relatives of the Ñaanco (Nyanthio or Nyanco) maternal dynasty of Kaabu, in modern day Guinea Bissau.[65][66] They left Kaabu following the Battle of Troubang (sometimes spelt Turubang) c 1335.[67][68] They were a mixture of Mandinka, descendants of Mansa Tiramang Trawally (many variations: Tiramakhan Traore, Tira Makhang Trawally, Tiramanghan Trawally or Tiramang Traore) of Mali and the Bainuk nobility, from the patrilineages of Sanneh and Manneh (Sané or Mané).[66][69] It was a dynastic war between the two maternal royal houses of Ñaanco and Guelowar. The Guelowars escaped to the Kingdom of Sine and were granted asylum by The Great Council of Lamanes (the Serer nobility).[70] The marriages between the Serer paternal clans such as Faye and Joof to the Guelwar women created the Serer paternal dynasties and a Guelowar maternal dynasty which replaced the old Wagadou maternal dynasty.[71] Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh (many variations in spelling: Maissa Wali, Maissa Wally also known as Maysa Wali Jon or Maysa Wali Dione) - (reigned 1350)[72] was the first Guelowar king of Sine post Troubang (1335). Having served for several years as legal advisor to The Great Council of Lamans and assimilated into Serer culture, he was elected and crowned the first Guelowar king of Sine in (1350).[70][73] His sisters and nieces were married off to the Serer nobility and the offspring of these unions where the kings of Sine and later Saloum (Maad a Sinig and Maad Saloum respectively).[74][70][75][73]

King Njaajan Njie

See also: Jolof, Kingdom of Sine, and Waalo

Njaajan Njie (English spelling in Gambia, Ndiandiane Ndiaye or N'Diadian N'Diaye - French spelling in Senegal, or proper: Njaajaan Njaay - in the Serer language) who is credited as the founder of the Jolof Empire by the Wolof people was not the son of Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar but the son of a Serer father and a Toucouleur mother. Njaajan Njie was the founder of the first Wolof kingdom and claimed by the Wolof as their ancestor.[76] In the oral tradition as well among the scholars, the Wolof, Lebou and the Toucouleur all claim Serer ancestry and are all related to the Serer people.[77]

"Tukulor [Toucouleur] are a mixture of Fulani and Serer" (William J. Foltz),[78]

The previously held belief that Abu-Bakr (the 11th century Almoravid) was the father of Njaajan has now been discarded. The surname "Njie" (or "Ndiaye" - French spelling in Senegal also "N'Diaye") is a Serer surname in origin[79][80][81] however both Wolof and Serer carry this surname. Mam Kumba Njie (or Mame Kumba Ndiaye) is a Serer Goddess in the Serer religion, a religion that predates Islam and the Almoravid movement.[82] Njaanjan ruled in the 14th century (c 1360) after The Battle of Troubang in 1335.[83][84][85] Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar died in November 1087 AD.[86][87][88] There was at least three hundred years separating them. Although Fatoumatta Sallah (a Toucouleur) was his mother, Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar (the 11th century Almoravid) was not his father. According to some, Lamane Baboucarr Njie (Bubacarr Njie or Boukar Njie - a Serer living in Waalo) was his father.[89]

In Njaajan Njie's epic, scholars note that :

"there are resonances and implications behind the very multilinguality of the original performances (griot performances[90]). Not only did the performers use words from Sereer [Serer], French, Arabic and Tukulor [Tocouleur] embedded in the Wolof base text, but they also rendered in Wolof sections of texts that they indicated were derived from Sereer sources. Each usage had implications of social attitudes, Islamic legitimacy, and personal style."[91]

Defeat of Portuguese slave raiders

In 1446, a Portuguese caravel carrying the Portuguese slave trader - Nuno Tristão and his party attempted to enter Serer territory in order to carry out slave raiding. None of the adult passengers of that caravel survived. They all succumbed to Serer poisoned arrows except five young Portuguese (or less). One of them was left with the task to charter the caravel back to Portugal. Nuno was amongst those killed.[92][93]

19th century Marabout Movement

Main article: The Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune

The Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune also known as The Battle of Somb was a religious war (but also partly motivated by conquest - empire building) between the Muslim Marabout movement of Senegambia and the Serer people of Sine.[94][95] On 18 July 1867, the leader of the Marabouts Maba Diakhou Bâ launched a jihad in the Serer Kingdom of Sine but was defeated and killed by the forces of Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof, King of Sine.[96][97][98] Maba Diakhou, a rather charismatic leader in the Marabout sect saw the propagation of Islam in Senegambia and an Islamic empire as his divine mission.[99] Although he did not achieve an Islamic empire, he had managed to conquer several villages in Senegal and Gambia and his movement was responsible for the Islamization of many Senegambians.[99]

The effects of Islam

See also: Léopold Sédar Senghor, Mamadou Dia, and Senegalese Democratic Bloc

"...it is not false to conclude that besides theoritical, constitutional arguments based on modern law, there was an historical dimension to the crisis of December 1962, which helps explain that some members of this first government of modern Senegal could not get used to the idea of being surbordinates to a Serer head of state, L.S. Senghor (Léopold Sédar Senghor). Indeed, this president's ethnic community remains the object of scorn, of prejudices of Senegal's dominant communities. For the latter, conversion to Islam is still seen, somehow as a sign of progress and open-mindness, compared to these Serer peasants who long held on to their "pagan" beliefs and who became Muslims or converted to Christianity only recently..."

M T Rosalie Akouele Abbey,[100]

The Senegambia region which includes Senegal and The Gambia are predominantly Muslim countries, though there is some degree of syncretization of Islam with African religion as common in many parts of Africa.[101][102][103] Syncretism of the Abrahamic religions with the indigenous belief system is not unique to the African Continent.

Although there are some Serer converts to Islam, Serer people's medieval to 19th century history in resisting Islamization has created a division between "believers" of Islam and "non-believers" such as the orthodox Serers who adhere to Serer religion.[104][105][106] Klein notes that :

"The most important factor dividing the peoples of Senegambia was the differential impact of Islam. In this, the Serer stood out as the one group that had undergone no conversion."(Martin A. Klein)[107]

This division is not just religious but also has an ethnic dimension. As recent converts to Islam, the Serers irrespective of their religious affiliation are the object of prejudice especially in Senegal where they make up the third largest ethnic group.[100] As opponents of Islam for nearly a millennia, anti-Serer sentiments are not uncommon.[108][100] However, the Serer countries, especially the Sine area of Senegal, is reported to be a true bastion of the anti-Islamic.[105][109]

Present

Main article: Serer people

At present, the Serer population is estimated to be over 1.8 million based on population figures for Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania (2011)- excluding the Serers living in the West and elsewhere. They are more numerous in Senegal than in Gambia and Mauritania. Though traditionally mixed-farmers, boat builders and land owners, the Serers are found in all major professions including politics, medicine, literature, commerce, law, agriculture, etc.[110] Polyculture and boat building is still practiced by some Serers. Due to their Lamanic land inheritance system, they tend to have valuable land. Recently however, President Abdoulaye Wade's land reform law has affected many Serer farming communities in Senegal and they've lost their properties.[111]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ See : Mwakikagile, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia:", p224 & "The Gambia and Its People:", p 138; Klein, "Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847-1914", pp 7 & 63, Gravrand, vol. 1. "La Civilisation sereer, Cossan" pp 115-18; & "La civilisation Sereer, Pangool" p 13
  2. ^ Klein, Martin, "Islam and Imperialism in Senegal, Sine-Saloum, 1847-914" pp 62-93
  3. ^ Sarr, "Histoire du Sine Saloum", pp 37-39
  4. ^ Diouf, Niokhobaye. pp 727-729 (pp 16-18)
  5. ^ For old paternal Serer dynasties such as the Joof family / Diouf, etc. and the maternal dynasty of Wagadou, see : Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. Phillips, Lucie Colvin, "Historical dictionary of Senegal", Scarecrow Press, 1981, pp 52-71 ISBN 0-8108-1369-6; Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. Clark, Andrew F. & Philips, Lucie Colvin, "Historical Dictionary of Senegal", Second Edition (1994); & Template:Fr Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire. Bulletin de l'Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire, Volume 38. IFAN, 1976. pp 557-504. For the Guelowars, see : Template:Fr Sarr, "Histoire du Sine Saloum"
  6. ^ Sarr, Alioune, "Histoire du Sine-Saloum", Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3-4, 1986-1987, p 239 (p 21)
  7. ^ Diouf, Niokhobaye, "Chronique du Royaume du Sine", p 747 (p 31)
  8. ^ Gravrand, "La Civilisation Sereer, Pangool", pp 9, 20, 77
  9. ^ Gamble,David P., & Salmon, Linda K. (with Alhaji Hassan Njie), "Gambian Studies No. 17. People of The Gambia. I. The Wolof.with notes on the Serer and the Lebou", San Francisco 1985
  10. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia", p 11
  11. ^ Gamble,David P., & Salmon, Linda K. (with Alhaji Hassan Njie), "Gambian Studies No. 17. People of The Gambia. I. The Wolof.with notes on the Serer and the Lebou", San Francisco 1985
  12. ^ Stride, G. T., Ifeka, Caroline, "Peoples and empires of West Africa: West Africa in history, 1000-1800", p 6, Africana Pub. Corp (1971)
  13. ^ Gravrand, Henry, "La Civilisation Sereer-Pangool", Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal. 1990, pp 9, 20, 77 ISBN 2-7236-1055-1. See also Template:Fr Gravrand, "La Civilisation Sereer, Cosaan, les origines; and Template:Fr Becker, Charles, "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer". Dakar. 1993, CNRS - ORS TO M
  14. ^ David Robinson. Muslim Societies in African History. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  15. ^ Lombard, Maurice, "The golden age of Islam" p 84. Markus Wiener Publishers (2003), ISBN 1-55876-322-8
  16. ^ a b Page, Willie F., "Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)", p676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), ISBN 0-8160-4472-4
  17. ^ Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), ISBN 1-57505-951-7
  18. ^ a b c Page, Willie F., "Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)", p209. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), ISBN 0-8160-4472-4
  19. ^ Ajayi, J. F. Ade & Crowder, Michael, "History of West Africa", Vol. 1, pp 121, 123 & 129, Longman (1985), ISBN 0-582-64683-9
  20. ^ Holt, Peter Malcolm, "The Indian Sub-continent, south-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West", Vol. 2, Part 1, Cambridge University Press (1977), ISBN 0-521-29137-2
  21. ^ Oliver, Roland Anthony, Fage, J. D., "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)
  22. ^ Catchpole, Brian, Akinjogbin, I. A., "A history of West Africa in maps and diagrams", Collins Educational (1983).
  23. ^ Hopkins, J. F. P., & Levtzion, Nehemia, "Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History", p 77, Cambridge University Press (1981). (Scholar)
  24. ^ Ayalon, David, & Sharon, Moshe, "Studies in Islamic history and civilization: in honour of Professor David Ayalon", p 183. BRILL (1986). ISBN 965-264-014-X
  25. ^ Olson, James Stuart, "The peoples of Africa: an ethnohistorical dictionary", p 569, Greenwood Publishing Group (1996). ISBN 0-313-27918-7
  26. ^ Behrman, Lucy C., "Muslim brotherhoods and politics in Senegal", p 22, Harvard University Press (1970)
  27. ^ Buah, F. K., "West Africa since A.D. 1000: history notes", Volumes 1-2, p 10, Macmillan
  28. ^ "An introduction to the history of West Africa", p 21, CUP Archive
  29. ^ Diouf, Mamadou, & Leichtman, Mara, "New perspectives on Islam in Senegal: conversion, migration, wealth, power, and femininity", Palgrave Macmillan (2009), the University of Michigan, ISBN 0-230-60648-2
  30. ^ Diouf, Mamadou, "History of Senegal: Islamo-Wolof model and its outskirts", Maisonneuve & Larose (2001), ISBN 2-7068-1503-5
  31. ^ Oliver, Roland Anthony, & Fage, J. D., "Journal of African History", Volume 10, Cambridge University Press (1969)
  32. ^ "The African archaeological review", Volumes 17-18, Plenum Press (2000)
  33. ^ Hopkins, J. F. P., & Levtzion, Nehemia, "Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History", pp 77-79, Cambridge University Press (1981) (Scholar)
  34. ^ Trimingham, John Spencer, "A history of Islam in West Africa", pp 174, 176 & 234, Oxford University Press, USA (1970)
  35. ^ For more information about Serer Lamanic lineage and class, see : Galvan, Dennis Charles, "The State Must Be Our Master of Fire:"
  36. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia", p 11; & "The Gambia and Its People:", p 138
  37. ^ Woodson, Carter Godwin, "The African background outlined: or, Handbook for the study of the Negro", p 51, The Association for the Study of Negro Life and History, inc., (1936)
  38. ^ Daggs, Elisa, "All Africa: all its political entities of independent or other status", p 138, Metuchen, New Jersey, Hastings House (1970), ISBN 0803803362
  39. ^ Gravrand, "Pangool", p 110; & "Cosaan", p 68
  40. ^ Ajayi, F. Ade et Crowder, Michael. History of West Africa, Volume 1. Longman, 1985, p. 468 (ISBN 0582646839). See also : Maad a Sinig; Maad Saloum and Lamane
  41. ^ Gregg, Emma, Trillo, Richard "Rough guide to the Gambia", p 247, Rough Guides, 2003, ISBN 184353083X
  42. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "The Gambia and its people", p 11; & "Ethnic diversity" p 97
  43. ^ See : Gamble, David P. & Salmon, Linda K. (with Alhaji Hassan Njie); Template:Fr Becker, Charles, "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer"', Dakar, 1993., CNRS - ORS TO M
  44. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "The Gambia and Its People: Ethnic Identities and Cultural Integration in Africa", p 136. (2010), ISBN 9987-16-023-9
  45. ^ Julien, Charles André, & Le Tourneau, Roger, "Histoire de L'Afrique du Nord", vol. 2, Praeger (1970), p 80,
  46. ^ Asante, Molefi K., "The history of Africa: the quest for eternal harmony", Routledge (2007), ISBN 0-415-77139-0
  47. ^ Page, Willie F, "Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)". Volume 2, Facts on File (2001), pp 112. 134, 200, ISBN 0-8160-4472-4
  48. ^ Hopkins, J. F. P., Levtzion, Nehemia , "al-'Umari in Levtzion and Hopkins," eds. and trans. Corpus, p. 262.
  49. ^ ibn Khaldun in Levtzion & Hopkins, eds. & trans. Corpus, p. 333.
  50. ^ See:
    • Gravrand, Henri, "La Civilisation Sereer, "Cosaan" : les origines", p 118. Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1983)
    • Gravrand, Henry, "La civilisation Sereer, "Pangool", p 13. Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1990)
    • Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire. Bulletin, Volumes 26-27. IFAN (1964)
    • Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire. Mémoires de l'Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire, Issue 91, Part 2. IFAN (1980)
    • Diouf, Marcel Mahawa, "Lances mâles: Léopold Sédar Senghor et les traditions Sérères, p 54, Centre d'études linguistiques et historiques par tradition orale (1996)
    • Sonko-Godwin, Patience, "Ethnic groups of the Senegambia: a brief history", Sunrise Publishers, 1988, ISBN 9983-86-000-7
  51. ^ Gravrand, Henri, "La Civilisation Sereer, Cosaan : les origines", p 68, Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1983)
  52. ^ Oliver, Roland; Fage, John Donnelly,& Sanderson, G. N., "The Cambridge History of Africa", p 214. Cambridge University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-521-22803-4
  53. ^ Faal, Dawda, "Peoples and empires of Senegambia: Senegambia in history, AD 1000-1900", p 17, Saul's Modern Printshop (1991)
  54. ^ Ajayi, J. F. Ade & Crowder, Michael, "History of West Africa", Volume 1, p 468. Longman, 1985. ISBN 0-582-64683-9
  55. ^ Galvan, Dennis C., "The State Must be Our Master of Fire", p 270, University of California Press (2004), ISBN 978-0-520-23591-5
  56. ^ Diouf, Marcel Mahawa, "Lances mâles: Léopold Sédar Senghor et les traditions Sérères", p 54, Centre d'études linguistiques et historiques par tradition orale (1996)
  57. ^ Lamanats means kingdoms or provinces ruled by Serer Lamanes. For more on Lamanes and Lamanats, see: Gastellu, Jean-Marc , L'égalitarisme économique des Serer du Sénégal. Volume 128 of Travaux et documents de l'ORSTOM. IRD Editions, 1981. pp 181-183. ISBN 2-7099-0591-4; and Transclusion error: {{En}} is only for use in File namespace. Use {{langx|en}} or {{in lang|en}} instead. Galvan, "The state must be our master of fire"
  58. ^ Ngom, Biram,(Babacar Sédikh Diouf),"La question Gelwaar et l’histoire du Siin", Dakar, Université de Dakar (1987), p 69. See also : Gravrand, Henri, "La Civilisation Sereer, Cosaan"; and Henry Gravrand: "La Civilisation Sereer, Pangool.'"' - both books deals with the subject.
  59. ^ Boulègue, Jean, "Le Grand Jolof, (XVIIIe - XVIe Siècle)", (Paris, Edition Façades), Karthala (1987), pp 30, 63
  60. ^ Dyao, Yoro, "Légendes et coutumes sénégalaises", Cahiers de Yoro Dyao: publiés et commentés par Henri Gaden. p 20 (E. Leroux, 1912)
  61. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia", p225
  62. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia", p 224
  63. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, Ethnic Diversity and Integration in the Gambia, pp 224-25
  64. ^ For more about Mansa Jolofing and Tiramakhan's victory and conquests, see: Comité scientifique international pour la rédaction d'une histoire générale de l'Afrique, "Histoire générale de l'Afrique", p 157, UNESCO (1980), ISBN 92-3-201710-5
  65. ^ Innes, Gordon, Suso, Bamba, Kanute, Banna , Kanute, Dembo, ""Sunjata: three Mandinka versions", p128, Psychology Press, 1974. ISBN 0-7286-0003-X
  66. ^ a b Fage, J. D., Oliver, Roland Anthony, "The Cambridge history of Africa", p282, Cambridge University Press, 1975. ISBN 0-521-20413-5
  67. ^ Sarr, Alioune, Histoire du Sine-Saloum (Sénégal) Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker. 1986-87, p 19
    • Troubang or Turubang in Mandinka means to wipe-out a clan or family (cleansing)
  68. ^ Gravrand, Henry, "Le Gabou dans les traditions orales du Ngabou", Éthiopiques 28 special issue No. socialist journal of Black African culture. 1981
  69. ^ Innes, Gordon; Suso, Bamba; Kanute, Banna; Kanute, Dembo, "Sunjata: three Mandinka versions", p 128, Psychology Press, 1974. ISBN 0-7286-0003-X
  70. ^ a b c Ngom, Biram,(Babacar Sédikh Diouf). "La question Gelwaar et l’histoire du Siin", Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1987, 69 p.
  71. ^ For the old Serer paternal dynasties such as the Joof family etc., and the Wagadou maternal dynasty, including the Kingdom of Baol - an old Serer Kingdom, See : (Ning & Sain 1972) [in] Colvin, Lucie Gallistel, "Historical Dictionary of Senegal", Scarecrow Press/ Metuchen. NJ - London (1981) ISBN 0-8108-1885-X
  72. ^ For Maysa Wali's reign, see : Sarr, Alioune, "Histoire du Sine-Saloum" (Sénégal), (introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker), in Bulletin de l'IFAN, tome 46, série B, nos 3-4, 1986–1987. p 19. See also : Template:Fr Éthiopiques, Volume 2, p 100-101, Grande imprimerie africaine (1984)
  73. ^ a b Sarr, Alioune, "Histoire du Sine-Saloum" (Sénégal), (introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker), in Bulletin de l'IFAN, tome 46, série B, nos 3-4, 1986–1987. p 19
  74. ^ Gravrand, Henry, "Le Gabou dans les traditions orales du Ngabou", Éthiopiques 28 special issue No, socialist journal of Black African culture (1981)
  75. ^ Sarr, Alioune, p 19
  76. ^ Anyidoho, Kofi, "Cross rhythms", Volume 1, "Occasional papers in African folklore", p 118, Trickster Press (1983)
  77. ^ Taal, Ebou Momar, "Senegambian Ethnic Groups:" Common Origins and Cultural Affinities Factors and Forces of National Unity, Peace and Stability. 2010
  78. ^ Foltz, William J., "From French West Africa to the Mali Federation", Volume 12 of Yale studies in political science, p136. Published by Yale University Press, 1965
  79. ^ Both Ndiadiane's name and surname are Serer in origin. For the surname Njie, N'Diaye or Ndiaye which Ndiadiane Ndiaye got his name from see : Cheikh, Anta Diop & Modum, Egbuna P., "Towards the African renaissance: essays in African culture & development", 1946-1960, p 28, Karnak House (1996), ISBN 0-907015-85-9
  80. ^ The name comes from the Serer language. See : Coifman, Victoria Bomba, "History of the Wolof state of Jolof until 1860 including comparative data from the Wolof state of Walo", p 276, University of Wisconsin - Madison (1969)
  81. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, " Gambia and Its People: Ethnic Identities and Cultural Integration in Africa", p 94
  82. ^ For the Serer Goddess Mame Kumba Ndiaye and Serer religion, see: Gravrand, Henry, "La civilisation Sereer, Pangool", Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1990), p 91. See also : Hindson, Ed & Caner, Ergun, "The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity", p 21, Harvest House Publishers (2008) ISBN 0-7369-2084-6
  83. ^ For battle of Troubang, see: Sarr, Alioune, "Histoire du Sine-Saloum"(Sénégal). Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker. 1986-87, p 19
  84. ^ Fage, John D., & Oliver, Roland, "The Cambridge history of Africa: From c. 1600 to c. 1790", p 486. ISBN 0521209811
  85. ^ Ham, Anthony, "West Africa", Lonely Planet (2009), ISBN 1-74104-821-4
  86. ^ Gravrand, Henry, "La Civilisation Sereer, Pangool", p 13, Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal (1990), ISBN 27236105511990
  87. ^ Messier, Ronald A., "The Almoravids and the meaning of jihad", p 86, ABC-CLIO, 2010, ISBN 0313385890
  88. ^ Powell, John, "Magill's Guide to Military History: A-Cor", p 10, Salem Press, 2001. ISBN 0-89356-015-4
  89. ^ The consensus among the historians is that the Wolofs later adopted Abu-Bakr the almoravid leader for the purposes of "Islamic legitimacy" which is contrary to the earliest recorded epic of Njaajan by Joseph-Alexandre Le Brasseur between 1774 and 1778 when he was governor of Gorée and reprinted by Boulègue, pp 25-26, where most the sources explicitly indicated they derived from Serer sources (see quote above), and a possible corruption of the Senegambian muslim name Baboucarr or Bubacarr (adopted from the middle eastern name Abraham or even the Serer Boukar as in Boukar Djilakh Faye, a Serer contemporary of Maysa Wali and Njaajan) who lived in a different era to Abu Bakr the 11th century almoravid. See also:
    • Johnson, G. Wesley. "The emergence of Black politics in Senegal: the struggle for power in the four communes", 1900-1920, p 10
    • Diop, Anta Diop & Modum, Egbuna P., "Towards the African renaissance: essays in African culture & development", 1946-1960, p 28. Karnak House (1996). ISBN 0-907015-85-9
    • Research in African literatures, Volume 37. University of Texas at Austin. African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, University of Texas at Austin, p 8, African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, University of Texas (at Austin) (2006)
    • Gravrand, Henri, "La Civilisation Sereer. Cosaan: les origines", Dakar, Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1983). pp 272-298
  90. ^ For the earliest availabe record of the epic of Njaajan Njie, first recorded by Joseph-Alexandre Le Brasseur between 1774 and 1778 when he was governor of Gorée in Senegal and reprinted by Boulègue, see: Boulègue, Jean. Le Grand Jolof, (XVIIIe - XVIe Siècle). (Paris, Edition Façades), Karthala (1987), pp 25-26
  91. ^ Research in African literatures, Volume 37. University of Texas at Austin. African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, University of Texas at Austin, p 8, African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, University of Texas (at Austin) (2006)
  92. ^ Hair, Paul Edward Hedley, "The Use of African Languages in Afro-European contacts in Guinea : 1440-1560", [in] "Sierra Leone Language Review", no. 5, 1966, p. 13 [1]
  93. ^ Hair, Paul Edward Hedley, "Africa encountered: European contacts and evidence, 1450-1700", Variorum, 1997, pp 213-15 & 248, ISBN 0-86078-626-9
  94. ^ Sarr, Alioune, "Histoire du Sine-Saloum", Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3-4, 1986–1987. pp 37-39
  95. ^ Diouf, Niokhobaye. "Chronique du royaume du Sine" Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. (1972). Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, (1972). (pp 727-729, pp 16-18)
  96. ^ Sarr, Alioune, "Histoire du Sine-Saloum " (Sénégal) Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker. 1986-87, pp 37-39
  97. ^ Klein, pp 90-91 & 103
  98. ^ Diouf, Niokhobaye, pp 728-29
  99. ^ a b Lipschutz, Mark R., & Rasmussen, R. Kent, "Dictionary of African historical biography", p 128, 2nd Edition, University of California Press (1989), ISBN 0-520-06611-1
  100. ^ a b c Abbey, M T Rosalie Akouele, "Customary Law and Slavery in West Africa", Trafford Publishing (2011), pp 481-482, ISBN 1-4269-7117-6
  101. ^ By Senate (U.S) Committee on Foreign Relations, "Annual Report on International Religious Freedom", (2004), Compiled by State Dept. (U.S.), Government Printing Office (2005), pp 48-49, ISBN 0-16-072552-6
  102. ^ Grolier Incorporated, "The encyclopedia Americana", Volume 12, p 262, Grolier (2000), ISBN 0-7172-0133-3
  103. ^ Azumah, John Alembillah, "The legacy of Arab-Islam in Africa:" a quest for inter-religious dialogue, p 224, Oneworld (2001), ISBN 1-85168-273-2
  104. ^ Thiaw, Issa Laye, "La Religiosité des Sereer, Avant et Pendant Leur Islamisation", Éthiopiques, No: 54, Revue Semestrielle de Culture Négro-Africaine. Nouvelle Série, Volume 7, 2e Semestre 1991.
  105. ^ a b Thiam, Iba Der, "Maba Diakhou Ba Almamy du Rip" (Sénégal), Paris, ABC, Dakar-Abidjan, NEA, 1977, p44
  106. ^ Klein, p 7
  107. ^ Klein, p 7
  108. ^ Thiaw, Issa Laye, "La Religiosité des Sereer, Avant et Pendant Leur Islamisation", Éthiopiques, No: 54, Revue Semestrielle de Culture Négro-Africaine, Nouvelle Série, Volume 7, 2e Semestre 1991
  109. ^ Galvan, "The state must be our master of fire:", pp 41, 44, 65, 260 & 305
  110. ^ Blanchet, Gilles "Élites et changements en Afrique et au Sénégal", ORSTOM (1983) pp 182-185
  111. ^ Ubink, Janine M, Hoekema, André J, Assies, Willem J, "Legalising Land Rights: Local Practices, State Responses and Tenure Security in Africa, Asia and Latin America", pp 259 - 287, Amsterdam University Press, 2010. ISBN 90-8728-056-4
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