Soviet crewed lunar programs
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- This article deals only with preparations for manned flight to the Moon by the USSR. For information about the unmanned spacecraft sent to the Moon by the USSR see Luna programme.
The Soviet Union competed with the United States to be the first to land a man on the Moon in the 1960s. The Soviet Moonshot program ultimately consisted of two separate manned programs: a lunar flyby program using a UR-500K (Proton) / L1 (Zond) combination, and a lunar landing program using a N1 / L3 combination. Following the dual success of the American Project Apollo with the first Moon flyby of 1968 (Apollo 8) and the first Moon landing of 1969 (Apollo 11), both of the Soviet counterpart programs eventually ceased: the Proton / Zond program was cancelled in 1970, and the N1 / L3 program was cancelled de-facto in 1974 and officially in 1976. Their materials and personnel were transferred to other programs. All details of both Soviet programs were kept heavily secret until the arrival of glasnost allowed them to be published in 1990.
Early concepts
Although the Soviet leadership had made public pronouncements about landing a man on the Moon and establishing a lunar base as early as 1961, there was no apparent active planning. Sergei Korolyov was more interested in launching a heavy orbital station TOS and in manned flights to Mars and Venus by TMK that would be assembled from modules launched one at a time. For this aim Korolyov began the development of the super-heavy N-1 rocket with a 75 ton payload.
In its preliminary Moon plans, Korolyov's design bureau initially promoted in 1962 the Soyuz A-B-C circumlunar complex concept under which in 1965 a two-man spacecraft would rendezvous with other components in Earth orbit to assemble a lunar flyby excursion vehicle, the components being delivered by the proven middle R-7 rocket. After developing the N1 beginning in 1963 Korolyov began to plan a Moon landing mission using two launches and docking. Later Korolyov managed to increase the payload of the N1 to 92-93 tons (by increasing the number of engines in its first stage from 24 to 30), providing enough power to accomplish the mission with a single launch.
Another main space design bureau headed by Vladimir Chelomei proposed a competing cislunar orbiting mission using a heavy UR-500K rocket (later renamed the Proton rocket) and a two-man LK-1 spacecraft. Later, Chelomei also proposed a Moon landing program with a super-heavy UR-700 rocket and a LK-700(LK-3) spacecraft.
The Soviet government decided to answer the American Apollo challenge after delaying three years. According to the first government decree about the Soviet Manned moon programs (' On Work on the Exploration of the Moon and Mastery of Space '), adopted in August 1964, Chelomei was instructed to develop a Moon flyby program with a projected first flight by the end of 1966, and Korolyov was instructed to develop the Moon landing program with a first flight by the end of 1967.
Following a change in the makeup of the Soviet government leadership, the Soviet government in September 1965 assigned the flyby program to Korolyov, who redesigned the cislunar mission to use his own L1 (Zond) spacecraft and Chelomei's Proton rocket.
Korolyov organized a full scale development under both programs, but died after surgery in 1966. According to a government decree of February 1967, the first manned flyby was scheduled for mid-1967, and the first manned landing for the end of 1968. However, Korolyov's death, various technical and administrative reasons, and a lack of financial support resulted in both programs being delayed.
Launch schedules
As of 1967, the L1/L3 launch schedules were:
L1
- 2P -Develop Block D stage -Feb or Mar 67
- 3P -Develop Block D stage -Mar 67
- 4L -Unmanned lunar flyby -May 67
- 5L -Unmanned lunar flyby -Jun 67
- 6L -Manned lunar flyby -Jun or Jul 67
- 7L -Manned lunar flybys -Aug 67
- 8L -Manned lunar flybys -Aug 67
- 9L -Manned lunar flybys -Sep 67
- 10L -Manned lunar flybys -Sep 67
- 11L -Manned lunar flybys -Oct 67
- 12L -Manned lunar flybys -Oct 67
- 13L -Reserve spacecraft
L3
- 3L -Develop LV & Blocks G&D -Sep 67
- 4L -Reserve
- 5L -LOK/LK unmanned -Dec 67
- 6L -LOK/LK unmanned -Feb 68
- 7L -Manned LOK/unmanned LK -Apr 68
- 8L -Manned LOK/unmanned LK -Jun 68
- 9L -Piloted LOK/unmanned LK with LK landing on Moon -Aug 68
- 10L -First men land on moon -Sep 68
- 11L -Reserve
- 12L -Reserve
Cosmonauts
In 1966 two cosmonaut training groups were formed.
One group was commanded by Vladimir Komarov and included Yuri Gagarin, and was to prepare for qualification flights of the Soyuz in Earth orbit and a Proton launched cis-lunar mission (Gagarin, Nikolayev, Komarov, Bykovskiy, Khrunov; Engineer-Cosmonauts: Gorbatko, Grechko, Sevastyanov, Kubasov, Volkov).
The second group was led by Alexei Leonov and concentrated on the landing mission (Commanders: Leonov, Popovich, Belyayev, Volynov, Klimuk; Engineer-cosmonauts: Makarov, Voronov, Rukavishnikov, Artyukhin). As a result, Leonov has the strongest claim to have been the Soviets' first choice for first man on the moon.
After Komarov's death in Soyuz 1 in 1967, Gagarin was taken out of training and the groups were restructured. Despite the Soyuz 1 setback, the Soviets successfully rehearsed the automated docking of two unmanned Soyuz craft in Earth orbit in 1968 and with the manned Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 joint mission in early 1969 tested the other key mission elements.
A total of 18 missions were related to the N1-L3 project. For details, see the table at the bottom of the article.
Moon flyby UR-500K(Proton)/L1(Zond) program
Launched by a 3-staged Proton rocket, the L1(Zond) was a spacecraft from the Soyuz family and consisted of two or three modified modules of the main craft Soyuz 7K-OK with a total weight of 5.5 tons. The Apollo orbital spacecraft (command ship) for the lunar flyby also had two modules (command and service) but was five times heavier, carried a crew of three and entered lunar orbit, whereas the L1 (Zond) performed a flight around the Moon and came back on a return trajectory. Planned for 8 December 1968 for priority over the US, a first manned mission of the L1 (Zond) was canceled due to insufficient readiness of the capsule and rocket. After Apollo 8 won the first (lunar flyby) phase of the Moon Race at the end of 1968, the Soviet leadership lost political interest in the L1 (Zond) program. A few reserve units of L1 (Zond) made unpiloted flights, but by the end of 1970 this program was canceled.
Moon landing N1/L3 program
The final plan for a manned landing adopted the same method of single launch and lunar orbit rendezvous as in Apollo project, but had differences in some details and technical data. Despite the fact that the planned Soviet Moon expedition was carried at a single launch like Apollo, for a safety of the mission, some two to three weeks before the manned mision, an unmanned 'L3 complex' and two automated moonrovers Lunokhod would be sent to the Moon. They worked as radio-beacons, with the LK being used as reserve 'escape' craft to return from the Moon, and the lunokhods were additionally equipped with manual controls for the cosmonauts.
Three-staged N1 rocket carried L3 Moon expedition complex that consists of two spacecraft (LOK and LK) and two (Block G and Block D) boosters.
A variant of the Soyuz craft, the "Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl" (LOK) command ship, carried two men, and was formed with three modules like main craft Soyuz 7K-OK, but was heavier by a few tons. 7K-OK was more than 2 times lighter than three-man Apollo orbital craft (command ship). "Lunniy Korabl" (LK) carried one cosmonaut, so in the Soviet expedition one cosmonaut alone would land on Moon, while in Apollo two would. Weight of the LK was 2.5 times less than Apollo moon lander.
Total weight of L3 complex orbited by N1 for LEO was 93 tons compared to Saturn V - 137 tons. Total weight of LOK and LK was 2,5 times less than full Apollo complex, but was equivalent to the L3 complex without Block G. The booster for the LEO towards the Moon for the Apollo vehicle was provided by the last stage of Saturn V, while for the Block D, LOK and LK, this was to be provided by Block G of the same L3 complex.
During the L3 complex's journey to the Moon, there was no need to undock and redock of orbital and landing crafts as in Apollo, because the cosmonauts would transfer from LOK to LK by a 'spacewalk', while in Apollo this operation was executed by an internal passage.
Block D slowed the LOK and LK into lunar orbit, while in the Apollo complex this phase was undertaken by firing the engine on the service module (the Apollo complex traveled with the Command Module and Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) facing back towards the earth)to slow the complex and enter moon orbit.
Once in orbit, the LK with Block D would separate from LOK and descend towards the surface of Moon using the Block D's engine. After Block D exhausted its fuel, the LK was to separate and complete landing using its own engine.
On the Moon, the cosmonaut would undertake moonwalks on foot and by lunokhods, collecting rocks and hoist the Soviet flag. If the lone cosmonaut was unable to return to LK due to any reason, a special tether connected him to LK (and could haul him in?).
After a few hours on the lunar surface, the LK's engine would fire again using its landing structure as a launch pad (as with Apollo). To save weight, the engine used for landing would also blast the LK back to lunar orbit for an automated docking with the LOK. The cosmonaut then would spacewalk back to the LOK carrying the moon rock samples, with the LK being cast off. After this, the LOK would fire its rocket for the return to Earth.
After the US with Apollo 11 won the final (Moon-landing) phase and the whole of Moon Race in 1969, the justification for the Soviet moon landing programme reduced, although developments and tests continued until the early 1970s. In 1970-1971 the LK was completely ready after 3 unmanned test flights on LEO, and the LOK was launched once. The Krechet lunar spacesuit and other support systems was tested. But four N-1 test launches were attempted but all were failures, despite engineering improvements after each crash. The second launch attempt on 3 July 1969, just 13 days prior to the launch of Apollo 11, was a catastrophic failure which destroyed both the rocket and the launch complex, and this delayed the N1-L3 program for two years more. If a planned fifth test in autumn 1974 and following tests of N1 were successful, a few Soviet manned N1-L3 missions would have been launched in 1976-1980. To gain technical and scientifical interest in the program, the modified multi-launched N1F-L3M mission (with significantly more time spent on the moon's surface than with Apollo) and later Moonbase and a new 'Vulkan-Zvezda', 'Vulkan-LEK' projects were proposed, but not adopted for economic reasons. As some recompense and as a replacement for manned landing program, the Soviets fulfilled a programme of automated delivery of lunar soil and automated moonrovers Lunokhods.
Soviet manned space efforts subsequently concentrated on the development of space stations and on several design and ground preparatory processes for a Mars mission, which continues to the present day, but has unclear objectives.[1] The launch pad and MIK of N1 was redesigned for Energia-Buran shuttle program. One replica of the LK now stands in Disneyland Resort Paris, with other units being kept in the designer's and producer's company museums.
Gallery
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Soyuz A manned spacecraft concept (1963). It was to have been part of the 'Soyuz A-B-C' circumlunar complex -
-
LOK (Soyuz 7K-L3) - Lunniy Orbitalny Korabl Command Ship. At the front of the spacecraft (left) is the Aktiv unit of the lunar mission Kontakt docking system -
LK Lander - Lunniy Korabl -
LK Lander - Lunniy Korabl ascent from Moon -
Apollo CSM and LOK (Soyuz 7K-L3) (drawn to scale). Command ships for the Moon voyage -
-
Zond (Soyuz 7K-L1) circumlunar spacecraft.
See also
- Moon Race
- First on the Moon - a Russian mockumentary
- Soviet space program conspiracy accusations
- Buzz Aldrin's Race Into Space
References
- ^ "Russia plans first men on Mars". timesonline.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
External links
- The Soviet Manned Lunar Programme
- THE SOVIET MANNED LUNAR PROGRAM
- Why did the Soviet Union lose the Moon Race?
| Launch vehicles and ascent/upper stages |  | |
|---|---|---|
| Spacecraft | ||
| Other hardware | ||
| Soyuz docking tests | ||
| Zond (7K-L1/L1S) lunar flyby missions | ||
| LOK (7K-LOK/L1E) test missions | ||
| LK Lander (T2K) test missions | ||
The † sign designates failed missions. Italics designates cancelled missions. | ||