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For my draft I edited and organized the section on history in Latin America (I put my actual writing in italics for clarity) and wrote about the history of other programs.

History in Latin America

The immense linguistic diversity in Latin America is what in part gave rise to demand for programs that would integrate indigenous languages into educational policy.  Brazil, for example, has the largest number of indigenous languages with approximately 180 .  Additionally, in some nations, the majority of speakers natively speak one or more indigenous languages that are not the prestige language

With the rise of indigenous activism in the 1970s, and controversy about multilingualism and previous bilingual education projects, a new education model of language maintenance and development emerged. This included an embrace of cultural aspects that were not exclusively linguistic: teaching aspects of everyday life culture, traditions, and world concepts. From the beginning of the 1980s, bilingual intercultural education was being developed in Latin America.

Influences

Government

After the nation states gained independence in Latin America at the beginning of the 19th century, the elites imposed a model of unification based on the Criollo culture and Spanish or Portuguese language as used by the colonial rulers. This system reached only the privileged classes and those parts of the mestizo population speaking Spanish or Portuguese. The bilingual programs were all developed to be transitional, in order to prepare pupils for unilingual secondary and higher education in the dominant language. They contributed to a more widespread use of Spanish as common language. These were experimental projects of limited extension and duration, enabled by international aid, such as the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), which supported a bilingual project with Spanish and Quechua or Aymara, or the United States Agency for International Development (US-AID).

In the 20th century, governments' attempts to educate the whole population in each country was based on a goal of assimilation, or increasing attempts to offer school education to the whole population had the explicit goal of hispanization (castellanización) of the indigenous peoples. Spanish was used as a language of instruction for learner groups although few among more isolated indigenous communities understood it. Students did not have much success in learning, and there were high rates of class repetition or dropouts. The speakers of indigenous languages left school as illiterate and stigmatized as uneducated indios. The use or even knowledge of an indigenous language became a social disadvantage, so many people stopped speaking these languages, but had sub-standard Spanish. Because of such language issues, for instance among indigenous peoples who moved to cities, they became uprooted, belonging fully neither to the indigenous or to the dominant culture.

Since the 1980s, many countries have passed laws recognizing linguistic and cultural rights. In countries such as Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Mexico, constitutional reforms were realized that recognized indigenous languages and cultures. All the countries of the Andes have recognized the importance of intercultural bilingual education. In most Latin American countries, IBE is under control of the Ministry of Education.

In most countries, such bilingual/cultural education does not reach the majority of the indigenous population, who often live outside the major cities, or in more isolated urban communities; in addition, it is applied only in primary education. Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Mexico have passed laws directing such education of all indigenous speakers, and Paraguay intends for the entire student population to receive bilingual training. Intercultural bilingual education in Guatemala is specifically mandated for regions with high numbers of indigenous peoples.

NGOs

Many Non-government organizations aided in the development of intercultural bilingual programs throughout Latin America with varying levels of involvement and different motives. These included the Summer Institute of Linguistics and the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) as well as USAID and the World Bank's PEIA

SIL

The Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), an evangelical institution based in Dallas, Texas, was the first institution to introduce bilingual education in Latin America for indigenous peoples. It had goals both of evangelization and aiding in the creation of intercultural bilingual programs . The first bilingual education programs of SIL started in Mexico and Guatemala in the 1930s, in Ecuador and Peru in the 1940s, and in Bolivia in 1955.

GTZ

The German Agency for technical cooperation (GTZ) played a role in supporting the creation of experimental bilingual education programs at the university level in Peru and Ecuador in cohesion with local governments in the early 1980s into the 1990s . More specifically, GTZ helped in the development of these programs at the level of training for primary school teachers.

Peru

The first education programs without the explicit goal of hispanisation were developed in the 1960s, among them a pilot program of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos in a Quechua-speaking area in the Quinua District (Ayacucho Region, Peru). The university work encouraged the government of General Juan Velasco Alvarado to include bilingual education in its educational reform in 1972. Peru, under Velasco, Peru in 1975 was the first country of the Americas to declare an indigenous language, Quechua, as an official language. Quechua was introduced in schools as a foreign or second language in Lima, but prejudices meant that few ethnic European or mestizo students studied it. Little changed for the Quechua and Aymara speakers in the Andes, as Velasco was overthrown in 1975.

On the other hand, the Peruvian indigenous teachers’ association Asociación Nacional de Maestros de Educación Bilingüe Intercultural criticizes the implementation of IBE in Peru as a bridge to castellanization and monoculturalization. It has said that the education of indigenous people should be under their own control and that of their communities.

AIDESEP/ISPL Program

In the early 1980s, AIDESEP, an indigenous rights group in Peru, got involved with ISPL, another group, and the University of Iquitos to create a research project related to creating a model for intercultural bilingual education . The program had 2 primary concerns: improving mastery of spanish for those who spoke other languages at home, and to revitalize what they viewed as a loss of indigenous knowledge due to the prestige placed on "white people's knowledge" . They faced many challenges such as internalized views of prestige of native culture and language by the children themselves as well as the typical challenges of bilingual education such as language domains .

Bolivia

A goal of the National Revolution in Bolivia in 1952 was to end discrimination of the indigenous people by integrating them into the majority society. Education in schools was emphasized, to be adapted to the linguistic situation. The government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro assigned education and hispanization in the eastern lowlands to the SIL, granting them at the same time the right to evangelize. Instruction in the first two grades of primary school took place in the indigenous languages to facilitate acquisition by students of Spanish. By the beginning of secondary school, the only language of instruction was Spanish.

In the early 21st century, Bolivia and some other countries have begun to promote a two-way IBE for the whole population. Under such proposals, all Spanish-speaking pupils and students are to learn at least one indigenous language.

Guatemala

Guatemala has one of the most extensive systems of intercultural bilingual education with one of the highest percentages of indigenous peoples in Latin America at 39.9% and a very high level of monolingualism among the indigenous population . For more information about Guatemala see Intercultural bilingual education in Guatemala

Mexico

The General Directorate for Education of the Indigenous (DGEI) in Mexico was created in 1973, scheduling the use of 56 officially recognized indigenous languages. The Federal Education Law of 1973 ascertained that instruction in Spanish must not take place at the cost of cultural and linguistic identity of indigenous Spanish-learners. Throughout the 1970s, there was a shift from merely bilingual educational programs to intercultural bilingual programs. Additionally the government pushed that all children needed to participate in interculturalism--not merely those who were part of an indigenous people group . In this case the demand for an IBE program came mostly from the government rather than large scale demand by indigenous persons . BIE programs focused on creating bi-literacy and bilingualism in indigenous languages and Spanish. These programs extend beyond basic education and are now leading to the creation of bilingual/bicultural universities in Mexico.

Ecuador

The system of IBE in Ecuador was top-up in that it was initiated by indigenous persons and unlike many other countries, IBE in Ecuador has been administered by indigenous organizations that are members of ECUARUNARI and CONAIE since 1988. This followed an agreement between the government and the indigenous movement, leading to the establishment of the national IBE directorate DINEIB (Dirección Nacional de Educacion Intercultural Bilingue). Indigenous representatives appointed teachers and school directors, designed curricula, and wrote text books.

Other similar models around the world

Colonization that gives rise to systems of language inequality is not exclusive to Latin America and various other areas around the world have attempted to implement similar programs to the Intercultural Bilingual Education model. These programs would allow non-prestige languages to be taught in the school system alongside a majority language. It should be noted, however, that these programs did not reach the scope of implementation that IBE did in Latin America.

North America

In the U.S. and Canada, there are an estimated 184 living indigenous languages--however, only 20 of these 184 are currently learned in a naturalistic environment by children (that is to say, learned at home through immersion with family and community) . Many of these minority languages are part of the various Native American tribes that through the history of reservation creation and racism by the dominant society and have become close to extinction . Similarly to the case with the hispanicization of Latin America, the prevailing idea that English is a prestige language associated with opportunity and literacy led to an ambivalence towards sustaining various tribal languages--despite the important role they play in tribal community and ethnic identity .

Hualapai

One model of attempts to integrate non-prestige culture and language into education systems can be found in the program in Peach Springs, Arizona called The Hualapai Bilingual Academic Excellence Program (HBAEP) . The Hualapai tribe lives in northwestern Arizona and their language, Hualapai, was an oral language with no formal writing system prior to the creation of the bilingual school program in 1975. The school was founded by Lucille Watahomigie who was herself Hualapai. The goals of the program were to create biliteracy in both Hualapai and English as well as encourage equality for the indigenous language and teach cultural tribal history in addition to typical American English curriculum. The creation of a phonetic-based writing system proved to be a challenge but ended with a successful biliteracy program and helped the children to acquire English reading proficiency as well.

Navajo

The Navajo language has the most speakers of any indigenous language in the U.S. . The Rock Point school was created in an attempt to improve student achievement along the Navajo people in Rock Point, New Mexico as well as improve self-image of individuals who did not speak the prestige language . Navajo is the primary language spoken by the majority in this area and children were not doing well due to low english proficiency resulting in low reading and math scores. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, there was a bilingual-bicultural program created for kindergarten through 6th grade . The classroom time was jointly taught in English and Najavo with a heavier dependence on Navajo in the earlier years . Despite this program, Navajo has fewer and fewer children entering Kindergarten fluent each year which may suggest the need for future programs .

New Zealand

Maori-English Bilingual education

Hinton, Leanne. "Language Revitalization ." The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice 23 (2003): 3-18. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. Web. 6 Apr. 2017.

Wright, Wayne E., Sovicheth Boun, and Ofelia García. The Handbook of Bilingual and Multilingual Education. N.p.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2015. Web. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/9781118533406

Gorete Neto, Maria. (2014). Bilingual education, indigenous language and culture: the case of Apyãwa Tapirapé. Revista Brasileira de Linguística Aplicada, 14(2), 335-351. https://dx.doi.org.libproxy.lib.unc.edu/10.1590/S1984-63982014000200006

Hornberger, Nancy H. "Bilingual Education Policy and Practice in the Andes: Idealogical Paradox and Intercultural Possibility." Anthropology and Education Quarterly 2000: n. pag. Print.

Hornberger, Nancy H. Indigenous literacies in the Americas: language planning from the bottom up. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1997. Print.

Lopez, Luis Enrique. "Reaching the unreached: indigenous intercultural bilingual education in Latin America." United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2009): n. pag. Web.

Vorih, Lillian, and Paul Rosier. "Rock Point Community School: An Example of a Navajo-English Bilingual Elementary School Program." TESOL Quarterly 12.3 (1978): 263. Web.

Aikman, Sheila. "Interculturality and Intercultural Education: A Challenge for Democracy." Tradition, Modernity and Post-modernity in Comparative Education (1997): 463-79. Web.

Watahomigie, Lucille J., and Teresa L. Mccarty. "Bilingual/bicultural education at peach springs: A Hualapai way of schooling." Peabody Journal of Education 69.2 (1994): 26-42. Web.

Trapnell, Lucy A. "Some Key Issues in Intercultural Bilingual Education Teacher Training Programmes--as seen from a teacher training programme in the Peruvian Amazon Basin." Comparative Education39.2 (2003): 165-83. Web.

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Bilingual intercultural Education

Although one of my critiques of this article originally was that it focuses on Latin America, from my research, it seems that most of the research and work in Bilingual Intercultural education has occurred here (likely due to the history of colonialism and hispanization). I did find many examples of different systems in Central and South American countries that provide some pros and cons to the system as well as one article about indigenous languages in the U.S.. One article I found discussed schools in Chiapas, Mexico and provided some important areas that could be problematic in systems of IBE such as a lack of complete understanding of bilingual education on the part of educators. It also brought up the issue of more grassroots or organic movements that push for IBE vs. those done at a more authoritative level and how these may be received differently. I feel that this adds nice depth to the discussion of IBE and should definitely be discussed (perhaps with furthering evidence from other areas).

I also found an article that discusses the case of Peru and issues of how educational policy can have an impact on overall equality in society--specifically for indigenous persons who speak a minority language. I think this is an important issue to discuss and although it is touched on in the very long historical context given in the article, I think it can be condensed and diversified to be more concise and informative while also giving multiple examples.

Looking for other examples of countries who have IBE, I found an article about Chile and how there was an effort to institute a system of bilingual intercultural education that taught both the Mapuche language and what the article refers to as "Mapuche Indigenous knowledge" or "Kimün".

My article about the US is one that really peaked my interest because it focuses on Native American bilingual programs and biculturalism. I think it could have some important information for our article on IBE.

"Insufficient Language Education Policy: Intercultural Bilingual Education in Chiapas" Ofelia Garcia

"Interculturality and Intercultural Education: A Challenge for Democracy" Aikman, S. International Review of Education (1997) 43: 463. doi:10.1023/A:1003042105676

"Intercultural Bilingual Education: Education and Diversity" Geraldine Abarca Cariman1

"INTERCULTURAL BILINGUAL EDUCATION AMONG INDIGENOUS POPULATIONS IN LATIN AMERICA: POLICY AND PRACTICE IN PERU, BOLIVIA, AND GUATEMALA" Mairead McNameeKing

Teresa L. Mccarty & Lucille J. Watahomigie (1998) Indigenous Community- based Language Education in the USA, Language, Culture and Curriculum, 11:3, 309-324, DOI: 10.1080/07908319808666559