User:Swashio/sandbox
Not to be confused with Yuki language (Bolivia).
The Yuki language, also spelled Ukiah and also known as Ukomno'm, was a language of California, spoken by the indigenous American Yuki people, formerly in the Eel River area, the Round Valley Reservation, northern California.<moved citation to end of next sentence> It is a level 9 dormant language of the Yukon language family, and became extinct some time in the 20th century, when the last speaker, Arthur Anderson, passed away in the 1980s.[1] Yuki is generally thought to be distantly related to the Wappo language.[citation needed]
Yuki consisted of three dialects: Northern Yuki (Round Valley Yuki), Coast Yuki, and Huchnom (Clear Lake Yuki). These were at least partially mutually intelligible, but are sometimes counted as distinct languages.[2]
Yuki had an octal (base-8) counting system, as the Yuki keep count by using the four spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves.[3] Yuki also had an extensive vocabulary for the plants of Mendocino County, California.[4]
An extensive reference grammar of Yuki,Yuki Grammar, was published in 2016 and is based primarily on the texts and other notes recorded by Alfred L. Kroeber from Yuki speaker Ralph Moore in the first decade of the 20th century as well as elicited material recorded from other speakers later in the 20th century. Yuki grammar was authored by Uldis Balodis and often references previous analysis on Yuki by linguists Jess Sawyer and Alice Schlichter, who wrote Yuki Vocabulary, as well as the work done by linguist William Elmendorf.[5]: 2, 10 This grammar also contains sketches of Huchnom and Coast Yuki based on the notes of Sydney Lamb and John Peabody Harrington, respectively.[5]
Note: I will be using the existing page's infobox.
Phonology
[edit]Vowels
[edit]Yuki has five basic vowel phonemes: /a/, /ą/, /i/, /o/, and /u/. /i/ is sometimes pronounced as [e] due to vowel height harmony, but does not affect the meaning of the word it is in. For example, mipán and m[e]pán both mean foot.[5]: 54
| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | u | ||||
| Mid | (e) | ą | o | |||
| Low | a | |||||
Vowel length is only very marginally phonemic.[5]: 52 /ą/ is nasalized phonemically, and the other vowels are nasalized when they are next to the nasal consonants /m/, /m'/, /n/, /n'/, or when they come before [w]. In some cases, the vowels are nasalized before glottal stops.
Diphthongs
[edit]Diphthongs in Yuki result from phonetic combinations of vowels with [j] or [w]. An example is ṭ’ąw, meaning ‘war’.[5]: 55
Consonants
[edit]Yuki has 25 consonants, around half of which are glottalized. For the stops and affricates, Balodis notes that the aspirations and voicing do not contrast.[5]: 40
| Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Palato-
Alveolar |
Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasals | Plain | m
m’ |
n
n’ |
||||
| Glottalized | |||||||
| Stops | Plain | p
p’ |
t̯
t̯’ |
ṭ
ṭ’ |
k
k’ |
ʔ | |
| Glottalized | |||||||
| Affricates | Plain | č
č’ |
|||||
| Glottalized | |||||||
| Fricatives | Plain | s
(s’) |
š | h | |||
| Glottalized | |||||||
| Approximants | Plain | w
(w’) |
y
y’ |
||||
| Glottalized | |||||||
| Laterals | Plain | l
l’ |
|||||
| Glottalized |
Syllable structure
[edit]In Yuki, vowels, glottalized consonants, or /s’/ do not function as onsets. On the other hand, words cannot end with /č’/, and ending with glottal stops are rare. Syllable structures allowed in Yuki include CV, which is uncommon to be a word on its own, CVC, and CVCC.[5]: 69 Combinations of these units can occur, but coda consonant clusters are only allowed word-finally. Non-final syllables thus consists of CV(C) patterns.[5]: 70 Examples of these structures include the following:
| Template | Examples | English translation |
|---|---|---|
| CV | č’o | ‘weak’ |
| CVC | ṭoṭ | 'ballgame' |
| CVCC | musp | 'woman' |
| CV.CV | šu.pá | 'blackbird' |
| CV.CVC | hu.luk | 'tears' |
| CVC.CVC | ˀim.lik | 'blind' |
| CV.CV.CVC | ną.ná.kuč | 'remember it' |
| CVC.CV.CV | lam.ší:.mi | 'Indian doctor' |
| CVC.CV.CVC | ną́n.k’i.lik | 'lay down' |
| CV.CV.CV.CVC | ˀé:.ne.ki.lik | 'slept' |
| CVC.CV.CV.CVC | nal.k’i.ní:.yam | 'chipmunk' |
[5]: 70
Stress
[edit]Yuki contains predictable, non-contrastive stress.[5]: 37 Typically, the first syllable of a root word is stressed and has a high pitch, regardless of affixation. If present, secondary stress is at the same or lower pitch than the primary stress, usually on the penult or on a prefix. Affixation does not affect stress placement.[5]: 57, 62
Primary Stress
[edit]káč.pis
left=ABL
‘on the left’ [5]: 57
The primary stress here falls on /a/ of the root, 'left'.
Secondary Stress
[edit]The secondary stress in the following example falls on the penultimate syllable.
The secondary stress is on the prefix, 'ną-', which refers to the mouth.
Tones
[edit]There is some consensus that Yuki is a tonal language, but the number of defined tones range from four to five: high, middle, low, falling, and dropping. Baldis notes that the five tones were originally identified by Hans Uldall, a phonetician, before Kroeber proposed that the dropping and falling tones were the same.[5]: 67, 68
Pitch accent
[edit]According to Elmendorf, pitch accents of Yuki are high, low, and falling. According to Schlichter, pitch accents of Yuki accompany stress, with high and mid variants. High pitches accompany primary stress. Low pitches are thought to occur at the end of a sentence without an accent.[5]: 68 Falling pitches are associated with glottal stops, such as in ˀuˀuk, meaning ‘water’.[5]: 48
Morphology
[edit]In Yuki, the root word always comes first, regardless of lexical category. It is an agglutinating language with most words containing four or fewer morphemes.[5]: 85 Prefixation in Yuki is extremely rare.[5]: 58 Examples of prefixes include those that indicate ownership, such as body parts. Affixation primarily occurs through suffixation.[5]: 85
Nouns
[edit]There are two categories of nouns in Yuki, human and non-human. Human nouns are for people and nouns with human characteristics, such as the mythical figures that recur throughout Yuki texts, Taykómol, the 'Creator', and Coyote, the 'Unstable assistant'.[5]: 19 Non-human nouns include inanimate objects and animals.[5]: 87 Nouns in Yuki have derivational and inflectional morphology, often through the attachment of case enclitics. Proper nouns are not distinguished separately from nouns.[5]: 148
Derivational morphemes
[edit]Derivational morphemes on nouns include instrumental and locational markers, nominalizers, and diminutives.[5]: 86
Cases
[edit]Derivational case marking includes instrumental and locative cases.
Instrumental Case
[edit]The clitic, -ok, is attached to the end of nouns to convey the use of an inanimate object.[5]: 136 In the following example, it used to say that some animals came into contact with fire and experienced burns as a result.[5]: 136
si=kiṭ=ˀi
NEW=then=HSY1
šąkmi=ą
some=PAT
ˀąs-ąk-il=mil
hot-SEM-MPSV=FIN
yim-ok
fire-INST
'and some were scorched by the fire.’ [5]: 136
Locative Case
[edit]Locative cases in Yuki are enclitics attached to the root of non-human nouns.[5]: 115 Case endings can be used with each other, such as the allative (=wič) and the lative case (=op) in the following.
Some cases have similar meanings, such as =wit and =k’il, which mean 'to' or 'toward', but they have are each used in different contexts. =wit is used to convey movement toward general directions, such as North, South, West, East, or large landmarks. On the other hand,=k’il conveys movement toward more specific objects and locations.[5]: 129 The various locative cases in Yuki are detailed in the table below:
| Types | Meanings | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Inessive | =k’i ~ =k ~ =i | 'on', 'in', 'into', 'at | lil-pąt=k’i rock-crack=IN hul eye p’oy-t-paˀ put-INTR-FUT ‘In the rock cracks the eyes shall enter.’ [5]: 116 |
| Second Inessive
|
-(ˀ)ąm ~ -(ˀ)am | 'in', 'into' | |
| Locative | -kot | 'in' or 'at' | |
| Subessive | =han, =hąhin | 'under' | |
| Lative | =op ~ =ap ~ =ąp | 'on', 'in', 'at', 'through' | |
| Allative | =wit | 'to','toward' | |
| Terminative | =k’il | 'to','toward' | |
| Ablative | =pis | 'from','out of','away from' | |
| Juxtapositive | =iṭ ~ =it ~ =ič | 'near','on the edge of' | lil=iṭ=ki rock=JXT=IN 'by the rock' [5]: 133 |
| 'around' | =mik’al | 'around' | są=k’om=ˀi SAME=there=HSY1 ˀal stick t’uˀ-ąk=mil lay-SEM=FIN hąč=mik’al house/camp/floor=around ‘And there he laid sticks around the floor.’ [5]: 135
mik’al-t-il around-INTR-MPSV ‘(you) will make your way around’ [5]: 135 |
[5]: 88
Nominalizer
[edit]Nominalizers -am and -lam are attached to the roots of adjectives or verbs to pluralize certain nouns. In this example, -am attaches to ˀolwis, meaning old, to convey that there are numerous old people that are being referred to.
-lam is an allomorph to -am. In this example, the addition of -lam conveys that there are multiple houses distributed amongst the group of people.[5]: 325
Diminutive
[edit]The suffix, '-ič' serves to change the meaning of a word into simpler components. Here, 'blood', 'ˀąs', comes to mean 'red' with the addition of '-ič'[5]: 138, 139 :
si=ki=ˀi
NEW=therefore=HSY1
ˀąsima
Woodpecker
nan
head
ˀąsič-a=mil
red-?=FIN
‘That is why Woodpecker has a red head.’ [5]: 139
Verbalization
[edit]The attachment of verb morphemes to certain nouns converts them into verbs.[5]: 142 In this example, the noun, hąwąy (food) comes to mean 'eating' after the addition of a continuative-iterative marker, an imperfective marker, and a finite marker.[5]: 142
si=ˀi
NEW=HSY1
hąˀąye
now
kimas
thus
ˀaṭat
people
hąwąy-s-m=mil
food/eat-CONT-IMPFV=FIN
‘And now the people (lived by) eating that [those things].’[5]: 142
Additionally, there are a few nouns that can be used as verbs by itself, such as kopwok, meaning 'feather dance'.
są=mi
SAME=and.then
kiˀ-mas-i
DST-DSTR-ANIM
hąšąˀ
again
hąp
song/sing
šuˀ
sit/stay
tat-k-il
good/make-PNCT-MPSV
‘And then in turn these others sit, sing, and dance the feather dance and fix themselves up.’[5]: 142
=kič
[edit]The enclitic, =kič, meaning 'only', is categorized as a derivational morpheme due to the lack of a more suitable category in Yuki.[5]: 163 Here, it is attached to 'obsidian' to convey 'nothing but obsidian'.[5]: 141
si=ˀi
NEW=HSY1
sąṭ’in
Lizard
ˀiyuˀaˀ=kim’
why?=over.there?
ˀan
long.time
han=op
house=LAT
šuˀ=k
sit/stay=DECL
kič’il=kič
obsidian=only
paṭ-s-paˀ
chip-CONT?-FUT
tan=hąl
NEG?=INFR1?
kiˀ-la
DST-INST
‘Then Lizard, “How is it to happen that always sitting indoors they will only chip obsidian, it seems, with that?”’[5]: 141
Inflectional morphemes
[edit]Inflectional morphemes found on nouns include core case and specific number markings.[5]: 86
Cases
[edit]Core cases in Yuki include agent, patient, and dative cases.[5]: 103
Agent case
[edit]The agent case, -Ø, does not appear on nouns, but do appear on pronouns. In a given phrase, agents are always the one doing an action on something else. This is described as having control.[5]: 93 The following example shows agent marking on the pronoun, 'I':
Patient case
[edit]Patients are indicated with the attachment of '=ą'. Patients can be the doers or the receivers of an action, usually dealing with human processes, physical or emotional. If there is both a doer and a receiver present in a phrase, the patient case goes on the receiver of the action. [5]: 91
When human nouns are the subjects of a sentence, they are marked with patient case.[5]: 87 Non-human nouns lack patient case even when they are subjects of a sentence, though there are some instances in which animals have patient cases.[5]: 102, 150
The receiver, Taykómol, is marked with a patient case.
Dative case
[edit]Datives are indicated with the attachment of '=ąt', and are objects of a phrase that has multiple receivers. For a dative first person reference, 'I', 'ˀit' is used.[5]: 168
Here, 'him' is marked with a dative case.
Number
[edit]Number suffixes occur on people: man, woman, and girl, used to either indicate singularity or plurality. The singular suffix is -p, and the plural suffix is -s. For example, 'man' is 'ˀiwop', while 'men' is 'ˀiwis'.[5]: 103
Verbs
[edit]Any morpheme that attaches to a verb is a suffix or an enclitic that comes after the root, with the exception of body prefixes.[5]: 219 Verb morphemes can be used to verbalize words of other lexical categories. For example, woknám, meaning ‘initiation’, can be converted into a verb with the attachment of -espaˀ, to mean ‘(they) shall make initiation’.[5]: 222
Derivational morphemes
[edit]Derivational verb morphology of Yuki includes numerous suffixes and nominalization.[5]: 279
Verbal Derivational Suffixes
[edit]Derivational verb suffixes of Yuki include intransitive, transitive, mediopassive, causative, continuative-iterative, and those specifying direction or movement (andative and directional).[5]: 279, 282, 284, 292, 294, 296, 298, 300
| Morphemes | Examples | |
|---|---|---|
| Intransitive | -t ~ -ṭ | nąw-t-aˀ see-INTR-IMP 'look!'[5]: 280 Here, the suffixation of -t onto nąw (see) changes its meaning to "look!", which does not refer to a specific object. |
| Transitive | -tl | The addition of -tl imposes transitivity on 'flee'. It should be noted that -tl is the only lateral affricate in Yuki.[5]: 282 |
| Mediopassive | il | Here, il indicates reflexivity of shaving. il follows the punctual aspect -k, and together conveys an immediate, completed action. |
| Causative | -s | k’ol-s die-CAUS 'killed'[5]: 294 The addition of the causative suffix to 'die' converts the meaning of the word into 'killed'. |
| Continuative-iterative | -s | The causative and continuative-iterative suffix in Yuki are both represented as -s. For this reason, these suffixes never affect the same verb at any given time.[5]: 292 Here, the suffixation of -s implies that the wood is being chopped repeatedly and indefinitely. |
| Andative | -n | si=kiṭ=ˀi NEW=then=HSY1 ˀiwis men mil meat/deer hut’op-n=mil hunt-AND=FIN 'and the men [went] to hunt deer.’[5]: 297 According to Schlichter, the function of the andative suffix here is to say that something is going to be done.[5]: 296 |
| Directional | -mą | -mą here implies that something is being carried towards the house. |
| Directional | -lit | są=kiṭ=ˀi SAME=then=HSY1 kipąw=k’il back=TERM kąyt long.ago han house hulk’oˀi Coyote hąˀ-tl=namli=kiˀ=k’il build-TR=DEP=DST=TERM koˀ-lit-ma=mil go-DIR2-DIR1=FIN ‘Then they traveled together back to where Coyote had built a house.’[5]: 300, 301 The directionality of -lit is inferred, as Kroeber does not define a meaning.[5]: 1, 300 In the above example, -lit seems to play a role in establishing the act of going back to somewhere. |
Nominalization
[edit]The suffix, -(m)ol', serves to create agents or objects from verbs.[5]: 302 In the following example, the verb, 'stay', is converted into 'stayer'.
han=op
house=LAT
šuˀ-h-ol’
sit/stay-DUR-AG/INST
miˀ
2SG.AGT
kup
sister’s.son
mih-tan
be-NEG
‘You are not, sister’s son, a stayer in the house.’[5]: 302
Inflectional morphemes
[edit]Inflectional verb morphology of Yuki comprises of tense, aspect, mood, and evidentiality.[5]: 223
Tense
[edit]There are four types of tense in Yuki: past, completed past, and future, and finite, examples of each are shown below.[5]: 223 The finite enclitic, =mil, attaches onto a finite verb, and was used often in texts of Yuki mythology to indicate an event that took sometime in the obscure past.[5]: 223, 224, 226 However, recordings of actual speakers showed a preference for the past tense suffixes instead of the finite enclitic.[5]: 224, 225
The past and completed past tense are distinguished by the context they are respectively used in. The past tense indicates events without specified closure, and lack relativizers such as kiˀ, which tend to succeed the completed past tense.[5]: 230, 231
| Morphemes | Examples | |
|---|---|---|
| Past | -wi ~ -u | hil-t-wi
open-INTR-PST1 |
| Completed past | -wiṭ(k) ~ -wič(k) | wok’-tl-wiṭk
dance/sing-TR-PST2 |
| Future | -paˀ | k’in-paˀ
cry-FUT |
| Finite | =mil | kom=mil
come=FIN |
Aspect
[edit]The different aspects in Yuki are inchoative, inceptive, durative, punctual, which indicates immediate, instantaneous actions[5]: 239 , semelfactive, progressive, perfective, imperfective, and past habitual.[5]: 233, 235, 236, 239, 241, 243, 244, 245, 252 In Yuki, inceptive aspects can either indicate an action that is going to happen, or can be used to note the beginning of consecutive actions.[5]: 235 The past habitual aspect indicates an action that used to take place. The glottalization, ’ is at times omitted from text.[5]: 252 Balodis, notes that the -l perfective aspect is not clear from collected material, but is categorized as such by Schlicter.[5]: 244
| Morphemes | Examples | |
|---|---|---|
| Inchoative | -ląm ~ -lam | si=mi=ˀi NEW=thereupon=HSY1 pąk one ˀin-ląm=k sleep-INCH=DECL =ˀi =HSY1 ˀimi=mil say=FIN ‘Thereupon one said, “I am getting sleepy”,’[5]: 234 Here, attaching -ląm to ˀin (sleep), refers to the process of becoming sleepy. |
| Inceptive | -kut | ˀoṭ’-kut-m=k suck-INCP-IMPFV=DECL ‘will begin to suck’ [5]: 235 Here, attaching -kut to ˀoṭ’ (suck), indicates the beginning of sucking. |
| Durative | -h | šuˀ-h-nik sit/stay-DUR-NEC '[you must] stay' [5]: 237 Here, the durative -h converts 'sit', an immediate action, into 'stay', an ongoing action. |
| Punctual | -k | si=kiṭ=ˀi NEW=then=HSY1 kap-t enter-INTR šuˀ-k=mil sit/stay-PNCT=FIN ‘So having gone in, he sat down.’ [5]: 239 Here, the punctual -k and finite tense =mil indicate the finished action of sitting down. |
| Semelfactive | -ąk | si=ką=ˀi NEW=thereupon=HSY1 lak’-ąk=mil leave-SEM=FIN čiw=pis acorn.storeroom=ABL ‘Then he took them out of the storeroom,’ [5]: 242 Here, the semelfactive affixed to 'leave' indicates that the action of leaving occurred once. |
| Progressive | -y | si=ˀi NEW=HSY1 k’oˀil Wailaki =iṭ =JXT wąk=op after=LAT ‘Then the Wailaki were following close behind.’[5]: 243 |
| Perfective | -l | |
| Imperfective | -(a)m | |
| Past Habitual | -mil’ | This is an example of the past habitual aspect with glottalization. |
Mood
[edit]Yuki has the following moods: declarative, imperative, interrogative, necessitative, permissive, speculative, and negative, which serves to negate the verb it affects.[5]: 268
| Morphemes | Examples | |
|---|---|---|
| Declarative | =k | mih=k
be=DECL |
| Imperative | -a(ˀ) ~ C#’ ~ Ø | nąw-t-a
see-INTR-IMP |
| Interrogative | -ha(ˀ) ~ -ˀa(ˀ) | luh-s-ha
chop-CONT-Q |
| Necessitative | -nik ~ -nˀk ~ -nk | šuˀ-h-nik
sit/stay-DUR-NEC |
| Permissive | -law ~ -lawh | hilyuˀ-t-law=k
sick-INTR-PRM=DECL |
| Speculative | han | t’uk’-han
hit/kick/stab-SPEC |
| Negative | -ṭan | čan-ṭan
give-NEG |
Evidentiality
[edit]Evidentials in Yuki include two different types of hearsay evidentials (HSY1 and HSY2) and two different types of inferential evidentials (INFR1 and INFR2).[5]: 270 The first type of hearsay evidential is seen in text as one of the following:=ˀi ~ ˀi: ~ ˀiy ~ ˀey, and conveys that the person speaking lacks prior knowledge.[5]: 270 An example of =ˀi usage is bolded below.
son=ˀi
however=HSY1
hulmunin=ą
Spider=PAT
muš-m-tan=mil
laugh-IMPFV-NEG=FIN
‘However Spider did not laugh.’[5]: 269
The second type of hearsay evidential is -sik, which conveys the concept of 'I hear' or 'they say'.[5]: 270 In the following example, the agent 'learns [that he is] to go', the act of learning being evidential.
są=ˀi
SAME=HSY1
ˀaṭaˀ
again
ˀąp
1SG.AGT
koˀ-mą-il-m-sik
go-DIR1-MPSV-IMPFV-HSY2
=ˀi
=HSY1
ˀimi=mil
say=FIN
kip=ąt
3R=DAT
ˀaṭat=ą
people=PAT
‘And, “Again I learn I am to go”, he said to his people.’[5]: 275, 276
However, some verbs with this suffix lack evidentiality in Kroeber's texts, as shown below.[5]: 276
nąwil-ą-sik
whip-?-HSY2?
whipped[5]: 305
The first type of inferential evidential is =hąli, and implies assumptions in a phrase. It is used in the following example to convey that it looked as though the person 'touched it'.
sa=mi=ˀi
SAME=then=HSY1
hąˀąye
now
piląt=ą
sun=PAT
k’oˀ=hąli=kiˀ
be.in=INFR1=DST
=ˀi
=HSY1
hąˀąye
now
ṭ’aˀ-tl=hąli
touch-TR=INFR1
=ˀi
=HSY1
muč’uy-t=mil
squeal-INTR=FIN
‘But now where the sun was inside, as he seemed to touch it, it squealed.’[5]: 273
The second type of inferential evidential is šiloˀ. It is noted that it appears in both enclitic and suffix forms, modifying the verb it attaches to by adding the inferential connotation.[5]: 277
Adjectives
[edit]There are two types of adjectives in Yuki: attributive and predicate.[5]: 312 Attributive adjectives are found directly before or after a noun in a noun phrase, and act as nouns on their own.[5]: 312 In the following example, the noun, 'rain', comes before the adjective, 'big'.
The following is an example of a noun phrase in which the noun, man, comes after the adjective, large.
są=ˀi
SAME=HSY1
k’ąy-mil=mil
talk-?=FIN
hoṭ
large
ˀiwop=ą
man=PAT?
han
but
hilk
all/something?
hąkoč-mih
bad-be?
‘And he talked: “Since even a great man may have something go badly with him ...’ [5]: 312
Predicate adjectives act as verbs on their own, and contain verb morphemes.[5]: 312 This is shown in the following example, where 'bad', with the attachment of =mil, the finite enclitic, means 'was unsatisfactory'.
Adverbs
[edit]In Yuki, adverbs convey the time or manner of a verb.[5]: 343 Certain adjectives without their nominalizers can serve as adverbs.[5]: 343, 344
Here, the adjective root 'small' works as an adverb to modify the verb, 'shone'.
Morphological processes
[edit]Yuki makes use of compounding, reduplication, and infixation.
Compounding
[edit]ˀuk’ (water) + hoṭ (large) = ˀuk’-hoṭ (ocean)[5]: 59
Reduplication
[edit]Infixation occurs with reduplication with the diminutive, -ˀV-.[5]: 140 In the following example, a glottal stop along with a reduplicated /a/ is inserted into sak, meaning 'child', to form saˀak, meaning 'baby'. sak (child) => saˀak (baby)[5]: 140
Prefixation
[edit]The rare instances of prefixation in Yuki occurs on some kinship nouns--a type of human noun that indicate possession. These prefixes are specific to perspective and plurality.
| Function | Examples | |
|---|---|---|
| ˀam-, ˀi(t)-, ˀin- | Denotes first person singular. | ˀam-k’ikan’
‘my mother's brother’[5]: 196 |
| miˀą- ~ miyą- | Denotes first person plural. | miˀą-k’un’
'our father'[5]: 199 |
| mis | Denotes second person singular. | mis-k’an’
‘your mother’[5]: 197 |
| moˀosiyąt | Denotes second person plural. | moˀosiyat
'your'[5]: 176 |
| kim-, kiˀat | Denotes third person singular. | kim-k’un’
'his father'[5]: 298 |
| kimasat | Denotes third person plural. | kimášat k’únat
'their fathers'[5]: 200 |
[5]: 195
Another example of prefixation are the body prefixes, detailed below.[5]: 58
| Meaning | Examples | |
|---|---|---|
| mi- / me- | ‘belonging to the hand or foot’ | mipát
‘hand’[5]: 58 |
| na- | ‘belonging to the head’[5]: 220 | Example unavailable in Yuki Grammar[5]: 58 |
| ną- / nam- | ‘belonging to the head or mouth’[5]: 220 | nąmlát
‘tongue’[5]: 58 |
| hą- / ham | Inferred to deal with the senses[5]: 220 | ˀi: hamlótu
‘I was hungry’[5]: 58 |
Syntax
[edit]Yuki typically has a verb-final word order.[5]: 393 Examples include:
Agent-Patient-Verb
Patient-Agent-Verb
ˀanwis=ą
orphan=PAT
moˀos
2PL.AGT
nąwil
whip
lak’-s-wič=kíˀ
emerge-CAUS-PST2=DST
‘the orphan whom you whipped and put out’[5]: 95
Agent-Verb
Patient-Verb
Exceptions to this verb-final word order include phrases with complementizers, in which the agent or the patient comes after the verb, as seen below.[5]: 395
si=ˀi
NEW=HSY1
hąˀąye
now
hiwąk
in.turn
moˀosiyat
2PL.DAT
ˀus=ą
1PL.EXCL=PAT
wok’
dance/sing
nąw
see
ham=k
like/want=DECL
=ˀi
=HSY1
ˀimi=mil
say=FIN
hulk’oˀi
Coyote
k’oˀol=a
Wailaki.PL=PAT
‘“Now in turn we want to see your dance”, Coyote said to the Wailaki.’[5]: 396
Some adverbial phrases are also found to not follow the verb-final word order. In the following example, the verb, 'dance/sing' does not come at the end of the phrase.
- ^ "Yuki". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2019-04-08.
- ^ Campbell 1997:132
- ^ Ascher, Marcia (1994), Ethnomathematics: A Multicultural View of Mathematical Ideas, Chapman & Hall, ISBN 978-0-412-98941-4
- ^ Chestnut, Victor King (1902). Plants used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California. Government Printing Office. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds dt du dv dw dx dy dz ea eb ec ed ee ef eg eh ei ej ek el em en eo ep eq er es et eu ev ew ex ey ez fa fb fc fd fe ff fg fh Balodis, Udis (2016). Yuki Grammar: With Sketches of Huchnom and Coast Yuki. Oakland, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-96569-0.
 | This is a user sandbox of Swashio. You can use it for testing or practicing edits. This is not the sandbox where you should draft your assigned article for a dashboard.wikiedu.org course. To find the right sandbox for your assignment, visit your Dashboard course page and follow the Sandbox Draft link for your assigned article in the My Articles section. |