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Beliefs

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In spite of important differences of interpretation and opinion, Christians in the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant and other traditions share a common faith. Although Christianity has always had a significant diversity of belief on controversial issues, most Christians share a common set of doctrines that they hold as essential to their faith.[1]

Jesus the Christ

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Main article: Christian views of Jesus

As indicated by the name "Christianity," the focus of a Christian's life is a firm belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah or Christ. The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation [Χριστός] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help) (Christos) is the source of the English word Christ.[2]

A depiction of Jesus and Mary, the Theotokos of Vladimir (12th century)

Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed as ruler and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[3]

While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[4] he ascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God,"[5] and he will return again[6] to fulfil the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and establishment of the physical Kingdom of God.

According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical Gospels, however infancy Gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, are well documented in the Gospels contained within the New Testament. The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.

Death and Resurrection of Jesus

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Main article: Death and Resurrection of Jesus
File:Cristo Velázquez lou2.jpg
The Crucifixion by Diego Velázquez (17th century)

Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith and the most important event in human history.[7] Within the body of Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend. According to The New Testament, Jesus, the central figure of Christianity, was crucified, died, buried within a tomb, and resurrected three days later.[8] The New Testament mentions several resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once", [9] before Jesus' Ascension. These two events are essential doctrines of the Christian faith, and are commemorated by Christians during Good Friday and Easter, particularly during the liturgical time of Holy Week. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues.[10]

As Paul the Apostle, an early Christian covert, contended, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless".[11][12] The death and resurrection of Jesus are the most important events in Christian Theology, as they form the point in scripture where Jesus gives his ultimate demonstration that he has power over life and death, thus he has the ability to give people eternal life.[13] According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[14] he ascended to heaven, to the "right hand of God,"[15] and will return again[16] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and establishment of the Kingdom of God, see also Messianism and Messianic Age.[17]

Most Christians accept the New Testament story as a historical account of some kind of resurrection, which is central to their faith. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church.[18] Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,[19][20] seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth. A group known as the Gnostics argued against its singular importance, as they had differing views as to how the passages should be interpreted, many believing Jesus was never a human and so could not have died (see: Docetism). Carl Jung suggested that the crucifixion-resurrection story was the forceful spiritual symbol of, literally, God-as-Yahweh becoming God-as-Job.[21]

Soteriology

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Main articles: Soteriology and Salvation

Soteriology is the branch of Christian doctrinal theology that deals with salvation through Jesus Christ.[22] Christians believe salvation is a gift by means of the unmerited grace of God. Christians believe that, through faith in Jesus, one can be saved from sin and eternal death. The crucifixion of Jesus is explained as an atoning sacrifice, which, in the words of the Gospel of John, "takes away the sins of the world." One's reception of salvation is related to justification.[23]

The operation and effects of grace are understood differently by different traditions. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the necessity of the free will to cooperate with grace.[24] Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart.[25] Arminianism takes a synergistic approach while Lutheran doctrine teaches justification by grace alone through faith alone.[26]

The Trinity

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Main article: Trinity
The "Hospitality of Abraham" by Andrei Rublev: The three angels represent the three persons of God


Trinitarians

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The term trinitarian denotes those Christians who hold to a belief in the concept of Trinity. Trinity refers to the teaching within some branches and denominations of Christianity that the one God is comprised of three distinct aspects or 'persons'; these being referred to as 'the Father' (the heavenly existence of God), 'the Son' (Jesus Christ - God's earthly incarnation as related in the Bible, and now held to coexist with the Father), and 'the Holy Spirit' (sometimes referred to as 'the Holy Ghost'). Together, these three persons are sometimes calledthe Godhead[27][28][29], although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead[30]. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."[31].

According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten (which is to say existing without having been created); the Son being eternal yet begotten of, or created by, the Father; and the Holy Spirit 'proceeding' - existing as a consequence of the relationship between Father and Son[32]. Regardless of this apparent difference in their origins, the three 'persons' are each eternal and omnipotent. This is thought by Trinitarian Christians to be the revelation regarding God's nature which Jesus Christ came to deliver to the world, and is the foundation of their belief system.

The word trias, from which trinity is derived, is first seen in the works of Theophilus of Antioch. He wrote of "the Trinity of God (the Father), His Word (the Son) and His Wisdom (Holy Spirit)"[33]. The term may have been in use before this time. Afterwards it appears in Tertullian[34][35]. In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen[36].

Non-Trinitarians

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Main article: Nontrinitarianism

Nontrinitarianism includes all Christian beliefs systems that reject the Trinity, the doctrine that God is three distinct persons in one being. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism and Arianism, existed before the Trinity was formally defined as doctrine in 325 AD.[37] Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, and in Restorationism during the 19th century. The nontrinitarian view was rejected by many early Christian bishops such as Irenaeus and subsequently by the Ecumenical Councils.[38] During the Reformation some nontrinitarians rejected these councils as spiritually tainted,[39] though most Christians continued to accept the value of many of the councils.

Casper Schwenckfeld and Melchior Hoffman advanced the view that Christ was only divine and not human.[40][41] Michael Servetus denied that the traditional doctrine of the Trinity was necessary to defend the divinity of Christ. He claimed that Jesus was God Himself in the flesh.[42] Modalists, such as Oneness Pentecostals, regard God as a single person, with the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit considered modes or roles by which the unipersonal God expresses himself,[43] in this way they parallel ancient Sabellians.[44][45] Latter-day Saints (commonly called Mormons) accept the divinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, but deny that they are the same being. Rather, they believe them to be separate beings united perfectly in will and purpose, thus making up one single Godhead. They believe that the Father, like the Son, has a glorified physical body.[46]

Scriptures

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Main article: Bible

Christianity regards the Bible, a collection of canonical books in two parts (the Old Testament and the New Testament), as authoritative. It is believed by Christians to have been written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and therefore for many it is held to be the inerrant Word of God[47][48][49]. Protestant Christians believe that the Bible contains all revealed truth necessary for salvation. This concept is known as Sola scriptura[50]. The books that are considered canon in the Bible vary depending upon the denomination using or defining it. These variations are a reflection of the range of traditions and councils that have convened on the subject. The Bible always includes books of the Jewish scriptures, the Tanakh, and includes additional books and reorganizes them into two parts: the books of the Old Testament primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with some variations), and the 27 books of the New Testament containing books originally written primarily in Greek[51]. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox canons include other books from the Septuagint Greek Jewish canon which Roman Catholics call Deuterocanonical[52]. Protestants consider these books apocryphal. Some versions of the Christian Bible have a separate Apocrypha section for the books not considered canonical by the publisher[53] .

Campaigning to be a restoration of the Christian church[54], denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement are distinct from other forms of Christianity in that they consider the Book of Mormon holy scripture and comparable to the Bible[55]. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints considers the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price scriptural. Along with the Bible, these books are collectively called the Standard Works of the church[56].

Interpretation

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Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, there is significant divergence in its interpretation, or exegesis. In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.[57]

Roman Catholic
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Roman Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.[58]

The literal sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture and discovered by exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation. It has three subdivisions: the allegorical, moral, and anagogical (meaning mystical or spiritual) senses.

Roman Catholic theology adds other rules of interpretation which include:

  • the injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal[60]
  • that the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held[61]
  • that scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"[62] and
  • that "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome"[63]
Protestant
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Many Protestants stress the literal sense or historical-grammatical method,[64] even to the extent of rejecting other senses altogether. Other Protestant interpreters make use of typology.[65] Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God's help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness."[66] He advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture."[66] And John Calvin wrote, "all who…follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light."[67] The Second Helvetic (Latin for "Swiss")[68] Confession, composed by the pastor of the Reformed church in Zurich (successor to Protestant reformer Zwingli) was adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches.[69] The Confession contains this statement about interpreting Scripture:

"We hold that interpretation of the Scripture to be orthodox and genuine which is gleaned from the Scriptures themselves (from the nature of the language in which they were written, likewise according to the circumstances in which they were set down, and expounded in the light of like and unlike passages and of many and clearer passages)." The writings of the Church Fathers, and decisions of Ecumenical Councils, though "not despise[d]," were not authoritative and could be rejected.

— Second Helvetic Confession (1566)

Creeds

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Main article: Creeds

Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They began as baptismal formulas and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries to become statements of faith.

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Apostles Creed (Symbolum Apostolorum) was developed between the second and ninth centuries. It is the most popular creed used in worship by Western Christians. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.[70]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Nicene Creed, largely a response to Arianism, was formulated at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively,[71] and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the Council of Ephesus in 431.[72]

The Chalcedonian Creed, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451,[73] though not accepted by the Oriental Orthodox Churches,[74] taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures are perfect but are nevertheless perfectly united into one person.[75]

The Athanasian Creed, received in the western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons not dividing the Substance."[76]

Most Catholics, Protestants, and Orthodox accept the creeds.[77] Restorationists oppose the use of creeds.[78]

Afterlife and Eschaton

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Main article: Christian eschatology

Most Christians believe that upon bodily death the soul experiences the particular judgment and is either rewarded with eternal heaven or condemned to an eternal hell. The elect are called "saints" (Latin sanctus: "holy") and the process of being made holy is called sanctification. In Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace but with either unforgiven venial sins or incomplete penance, undergo purification in purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into heaven. At the last coming of Christ, the eschaton or end of time, all who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgement, whereupon Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies.[79][80]

Some groups do not distinguish a particular judgment from the general judgment at the end of time, teaching instead that souls remain in stasis until this time.[81] These groups, and others that do not believe in the intercession of saints, generally do not employ the word "saint" to describe those in heaven. Universalists hold that eventually all will experience salvation, thereby rejecting the concept of an eternal hell for those who are not saved.


Sandbox notes

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  1. ^ Olson, Roger E. The Mosaic of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press (2002). ISBN 9780830826957.
  2. ^ McGrath, Alister E. Christianity:An Introduction. Pp 4-6. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991.
  3. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pp 513, 649. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0195046455.
  4. ^ Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31–32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40–41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30–31, 1 Cor 6:14, 2 Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1 Pet 1:3, 1:21
  5. ^ Mark 16:19, Luke 22:69, Acts 2:33, 5:31, 7:55–56, Romans 8:34, Eph 1:20, Col 3:1, Hebrews 1:3, 1:13, 10:12, 12:2, 1 Peter 3:22
  6. ^ Acts 1:9–11
  7. ^ Hanegraaff, Hank. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. Thomas Nelson (2000) IBSN 0849916437 .
  8. ^ John 19:30–31, Mark 16:1, Mark 16:6
  9. ^ 1 Cor. 15:6
  10. ^ Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today. Pg. 13. Smyth & Helwys (2003) ISBN 1573123994 .
  11. ^ 1 Cor. 15:14)
  12. ^ Ball, Bryan and William Johnsson, editors. The Essential Jesus. Pacific Press (2002). ISBN 0816319294.
  13. ^ John 3:16, 5:24, 6:39–40, 6:47, 10:10, 11:25–26, and 17:3.
  14. ^ Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31–32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40–41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30–31, 1 Cor 6:14, 2 Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1 Pet 1:3, 1:21
  15. ^ Mark 16:19, Luke 22:69, Acts 2:33, 5:31, 7:55–56, Romans 8:34, Eph 1:20, Col 3:1, Hebrews 1:3, 1:13, 10:12, 12:2, 1 Peter 3:22
  16. ^ Acts 1:9–11
  17. ^ The Parousia is the term used in the Bible, see Strong's G3952 for details, which includes the Thayer's Lexicon definition: "In the N.T. especially of the advent, i.e.,the future, visible, return from heaven of Jesus, the Messiah, to raise the dead, hold the last judgment, and set up formally and gloriously the kingdom of God." According to the Bauer lexicon: "of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age."
  18. ^ Fuller, Reginald H. The Foundations of New Testament Christology. Pg 11. Scribners (1965). ISBN 068415532X .
  19. ^ A Jesus Seminar conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on visionary experiences of Peter, Paul, and Mary."
  20. ^ Funk, Robert. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. Polebridge Press (1998). ISBN 0060629789.
  21. ^ Jung, Carl (1971). "The Answer to Job". The Portable Jung. Penguin. Retrieved 2007-12-31. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  22. ^ title url "Soteriology". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2006. Retrieved 2007-12-31. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  23. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pg. 405 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
  24. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Grace and Justification
  25. ^ Westminster Confession, Chapter X; Charles Spurgeon, A Defense of Calvinism.
  26. ^ Richard D. Balge Martin Luther, Augustinian
  27. ^ J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines pp. 87-90
  28. ^ T. Desmond Alexander, New Dictionary of Biblical Theology pp. 514-515
  29. ^ Alister E. McGrath, Historical Theology p. 61.
  30. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pg . 782 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
  31. ^ J.N.D. Kelly, The Athanasian Creed, NY: Harper and Row, 1964.
  32. ^ Vladimir Lossky; Loraine Boettner
  33. ^ Theophilus of Antioch Apologia ad Autolycum II 15
  34. ^ McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 50. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.
  35. ^ Tertullian De Pudicitia chapter 21
  36. ^ McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 53. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.
  37. ^ von Harnack, Adolf (1894-03-01). "History of Dogma". Retrieved 2007-06-15. [In the 2nd century,] Jesus was either regarded as the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion, (Adoptian Christology); or Jesus was regarded as a heavenly spiritual being (the highest after God) who took flesh, and again returned to heaven after the completion of his work on earth (pneumatic Christology)
  38. ^ McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Pg 35. Oxford University Press (1990) IBSN 0198229283.
  39. ^ MacCulloch, Diarmaid. The Reformation: A History. Pp. 185-187. Viking Adult (2004) ISBN 0670032964
  40. ^ R. Emmet McLaughlin Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical : his life to 1540, New Haven : Yale University Press, 1986 ISBN 0-300-03367-2
  41. ^ Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest & Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation. ISBN 0-567-08654-2
  42. ^ Servetus, Michael. Restoration of Christianity. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2007.
  43. ^ William Arnold, Is Jesus God the Father?
  44. ^ J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, p. 119-123
  45. ^ Robert Letham, The Holy Trinity: In Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship, p. 97-98.
  46. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 130:22
  47. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture (§105-108)
  48. ^ Second Helvetic Confession, Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God
  49. ^ Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, online text
  50. ^ Keith Mathison The Shape of Sola Scriptura (2001)
  51. ^ http://www.pcusa.org/101/101-bible.htm
  52. ^ F.F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture; Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Canon of Scripture § 120
  53. ^ Metzger, Bruce M. and Michael Coogan, editors. Oxford Companion to the Bible. Pg . 39 Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
  54. ^ Mormon.org, Heavenly Father Reveals His Gospel To All
  55. ^ The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Book of Mormon, Introduction
  56. ^ The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Scriptures, Internet Edition
  57. ^ J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines pp. 69-78.
  58. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture § 115-118
  59. ^ 1_Corinthians 10:2
  60. ^ Thomas Aquinas, "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses"; cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116
  61. ^ Second Vatican Council Dei Verbum (V.19)
  62. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture" § 113
  63. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85
  64. ^ R.C. Sproul, Knowing Scripture pp. 45-61; Greg Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (art. 6)
  65. ^ E.g., in his commentary on Matthew 1 (§III.3) Matthew Henry interprets the twin-sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and Jewish Christians. For a contemporary treatment, see W. Edward Glenny, Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion
  66. ^ a b Scott Foutz, Martin Luther and Scripture
  67. ^ John Calvin, Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles 2 Peter 3:14-18
  68. ^ http://mb-soft.com/believe/txh/helvconf.htm Article about Helvetic confessions
  69. ^ Second Helvetic Confession, Of Interpreting the Holy Scriptures; and of Fathers, Councils, and Traditions
  70. ^ Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss, editors. Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition]. Yale University Press 2003 ISBN 0300093896.
  71. ^ Catholics United for the Faith, "We Believe in One God"; Encyclopedia of Religion, "Arianism"
  72. ^ "Council of Ephesus" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
  73. ^ Matt Slick, Chalcedonian Creed; Christian History Institute, First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon
  74. ^ British Orthodox Church, The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon
  75. ^ Pope Leo I, Letter to Flavian
  76. ^ "Athanasian Creed" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
  77. ^ "Our Common Heritage as Christians". The United Methodist Church. Retrieved 2007-12-31.
  78. ^ "The History of the Church", Howard A. White
  79. ^ Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis questions 69 through 99
  80. ^ Calvin, John. "Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25". www.reformed.org. Retrieved 2008-01-01. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  81. ^ Spitz, Lewis, The Protestant Reformation. Concordia Publishing House (2003) ISBN 0570033209.
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