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User:Stummarakota/Kachin people : Added information on British Colonial rule using peer-reviewed sources and books.
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=== British Colonial Rule and Burmese Independence ===
=== British Colonial Rule and Burmese Independence ===
[[British rule in Burma]] began in 1824 after the first [[Anglo-Burmese Wars|Anglo-Burmese War.]] Due to the remote location of the Kachin State and its rugged landscape, however, Kachin Peoples were relatively untouched by British rule. American missionaries were the first to heavily interact with Kachin Peoples and they converted large tracts of the population from [[animism]] to [[Christianity]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nash|first=Ed|date=2020-11-30|title=The Long War Pt. 4; The Kachin Independence Army (KIA)|url=https://militarymatters.online/kachin-independence-army/|access-date=2021-03-29|website=Military Matters|language=en-US}}</ref> During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the British started replacing ethnic Burmans in the military with Chin, Kachin, and Karen soldiers. This exclusion of ethnic Burmans from the British military was formally adopted in 1925 when policy was written only allowing ethnic minorities to enlist in the army. Due to this change in military composition, many ethnic Burmans began associating the ethnic minorities with British oppression.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Walton|first=Matthew|date=November/December 2008|title=Ethnicity, Conflict, and History in Burma: The Myths of Panglong|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/48/6/889/24224|journal=Asian Survey|volume=48|pages=889-910|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Following the [[Japanese invasion of Burma]] in 1942, many Burmese soldiers rallied together to form the [[Burma Independence Army|Burmese Independence Army]] (BIA) and fight against the British alongside the Japanese. The Kachin Peoples, however, were recruited by the British and America to fight against Japanese forces with the promise of autonomy after the war. <ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Jaquet|first=Carine|title=Kachin history, perceptions, and beliefs: contextual elements|date=2018-07-03|url=http://books.openedition.org/irasec/273|work=The Kachin Conflict : Testing the Limits of the Political Transition in Myanmar|pages=17–32|series=Carnets de l’Irasec|place=Bangkok|publisher=Institut de recherche sur l’Asie du Sud-Est contemporaine|isbn=978-2-35596-015-4|access-date=2021-03-29}}</ref> After the end of World War II and British rule in the region, the Kachin Peoples agreed to join the Union of Burma at the [[Panglong Conference|1947 Panglong Conference]]. The conference brought together Kachin, Shin, and Chan leaders - along with the Burman leader at the time [[Aung San|General Aung San]]. Together they signed the [[Panglong Agreement]] which granted the ethnic border states autonomy in local administration and equal treatment by the State.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kipgen|first=Nehginpao|date=2015|title=Ethnic Nationalities and the Peace Process in Myanmar|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/587497|journal=Social Research: An International Quarterly|volume=82|issue=2|pages=399–425|issn=1944-768X}}</ref> The assassination of General Aung San, however, reduced government support for the agreement and led to feelings of betrayals on the part of Kachin Peoples.<ref name=":1" />
[[British rule in Burma]] began in 1824 after the first [[Anglo-Burmese Wars|Anglo-Burmese War.]] Due to the remote location of the Kachin State and its rugged landscape, however, Kachin Peoples were relatively untouched by British rule. American missionaries were the first to heavily interact with Kachin Peoples and they converted large tracts of the population from [[animism]] to [[Christianity]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nash|first=Ed|date=2020-11-30|title=The Long War Pt. 4; The Kachin Independence Army (KIA)|url=https://militarymatters.online/kachin-independence-army/|access-date=2021-03-29|website=Military Matters|language=en-US}}</ref> During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the British started replacing ethnic Burmans in the military with Chin, Kachin, and Karen soldiers. This exclusion of ethnic Burmans from the British military was formally adopted in 1925 when policy was written only allowing ethnic minorities to enlist in the army. Due to this change in military composition, many ethnic Burmans began associating the ethnic minorities with British oppression.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Walton|first=Matthew|date=November/December 2008|title=Ethnicity, Conflict, and History in Burma: The Myths of Panglong|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/as/article-abstract/48/6/889/24224|journal=Asian Survey|volume=48|pages=889-910|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Following the [[Japanese invasion of Burma]] in 1942, many Burmese soldiers rallied together to form the [[Burma Independence Army|Burmese Independence Army]] (BIA) and fight against the British alongside the Japanese. The Kachin Peoples, however, were recruited by the British and America to fight against Japanese forces with the promise of autonomy after the war. <ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Jaquet|first=Carine|title=Kachin history, perceptions, and beliefs: contextual elements|date=2018-07-03|url=http://books.openedition.org/irasec/273|work=The Kachin Conflict : Testing the Limits of the Political Transition in Myanmar|pages=17–32|series=Carnets de l’Irasec|place=Bangkok|publisher=Institut de recherche sur l’Asie du Sud-Est contemporaine|isbn=978-2-35596-015-4|access-date=2021-03-29}}</ref> After the end of World War II and British rule in the region, the Kachin Peoples agreed to join the Union of Burma at the [[Panglong Conference|1947 Panglong Conference]]. The conference brought together Kachin, Shin, and Chan leaders - along with the Burman leader at the time [[Aung San|General Aung San]]. Together they signed the [[Panglong Agreement]] which granted the ethnic border states autonomy in local administration and equal treatment by the State.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kipgen|first=Nehginpao|date=2015|title=Ethnic Nationalities and the Peace Process in Myanmar|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/587497|journal=Social Research: An International Quarterly|volume=82|issue=2|pages=399–425|issn=1944-768X}}</ref> The assassination of General Aung San, however, reduced government support for the agreement and led to feelings of betrayals on the part of Kachin Peoples.<ref name=":1" />

=== Kachin Independence Movement ===
The [[Kachin Independence Organisation|Kachin Independence Organization (KIO)]] was formed on October 25, 1960 to advocate for and protect the rights of Kachin Peoples.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hlaing.|first=Ganesan, N. (Narayanan), 1958- Kyaw Yin|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/124063677|title=Myanmar : state, society, and ethnicity|date=2007|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|isbn=978-981-230-434-6|oclc=124063677}}</ref> A year after its inception, the [[Kachin Independence Army|Kachin Independence Army (KIA)]] was created to be the armed wing of the KIO. While the KIA initially started with a hundred members, current reports from KIA commanders indicate an army 10,000 strong with another 10,000 in reserves.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2010-02-22|title=Burma's Kachin army prepares for civil war|language=en-GB|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8528985.stm|access-date=2021-03-29}}</ref> Both the KIO and KIA support their missions with the trade of jade, timber, and other raw materials with China.<ref>{{Cite book|last=author.|first=Sun, Yun,|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/872666485|title=China, the United States and the Kachin conflict|oclc=872666485}}</ref>

=== 1994 Ceasefire Agreement ===
After 33 years of insurgency, the KIO signed a ceasefire agreement with the [[State Law and Order Restoration Council|State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC)]], ending all military missions instigated by both the [[Tatmadaw]] (Myanmar Army) and the KIO. The ceasefire primarily ended military activity but also included stipulations that the Myanmar government fund development projects in the Kachin state. At the time of signing, the KIO was facing increased military pressure from the Tatmadaw and decreasing support from foreign actors to continue warfare against the State.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dukalskis|first=Alexander|date=2015-10-03|title=Why Do Some Insurgent Groups Agree to Cease-Fires While Others Do Not? A Within-Case Analysis of Burma/Myanmar, 1948–2011|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1056631|journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism|volume=38|issue=10|pages=841–863|doi=10.1080/1057610X.2015.1056631|issn=1057-610X}}</ref>

=== Border Guard Force ===
Prior to the 2010 elections, the Tatmadaw implored government officials to turn the KIA, along with other ethnic insurgent groups, into militia forces under the jurisdiction of the Tatmadaw.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=South|first=Ashley|date=December 2018|title=Protecting civilians in the Kachin borderlands, Myanmar: key threats and local responses.|url=https://cdn.odi.org/media/documents/12566.pdf|journal=Humanitarian Policy Group}}</ref> The order stemmed from a military-drafted 2008 Constitution mandating all armed forces surrender their weapons, fall under the central authority of the Tatmadaw, and rebrand as [[Border Guard Forces]] (BGF).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-11-29|title=Border guard plan could fuel ethnic conflict|url=https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/report/91221/myanmar-border-guard-plan-could-fuel-ethnic-conflict|access-date=2021-03-29|website=The New Humanitarian|language=en}}</ref> The KIO refused to transform into a BGF and instead provided a counter-proposal which would rebrand the KIA as the Kachin Regional Guard Force (KRGF). The new organization would work towards ethnic equality for Kachin Peoples but the effort was dismissed by the Tatmadaw.

=== Land Right Disputes ===
Following the 1994 ceasefire, the the [[State Law and Order Restoration Council|State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC)]] and [[State Peace and Development Council|State Peace and Development Council (SPDC)]] engaged in land-grabs across the Kachin State. Leveraging weak land governance policies, SLORC and SPDC invited foreign actors to invest in mining, logging, dam construction, and other infrastructure projects in lands traditionally owned by Kachin People. Furthermore, the Kachin State is rich in natural resources, particularly jade, which the [[Tatmadaw]] (Myanmar Army) and KIO fight for control over.<ref name=":0" /> Throughout the late 1900s and early 2000s, the Tatmadaw established military presence in areas designated for commercial development, eroding the control of land under the governance of the KIO.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020|editor-last=Oishi|editor-first=Mikio|title=Managing Conflicts in a Globalizing ASEAN|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9570-4|doi=10.1007/978-981-32-9570-4}}</ref>

=== 2011 - 2013 Conflict in Kachin ===
Following the 2011 election of [[Thein Sein]] as President of Myanmar additional ceasefires were signed with many of the largest ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) signaling reconciliation.<ref name=":0" /> However, on June 9, 2011 Tatmadaw forces broke the 17-year ceasefire and launched an armed offensive against the KIO along the [[Taping River]] near a hydroelectric plant.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lintner|first=Bertil|date=December 18, 2012|title=More war than peace in Myanmar|work=Asian Times|url-status=live}}</ref> During the attack, Tatmadaw forces abducted KIO Lance Corporal Chang Ying only to return his tortured body days later. The move prompted retaliation from KIO and began a series of deadly skirmishes between the two.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lahpai|first=Seng Maw|title=Debating Democratization in Myanmar: Chapter 14 State Terrorism and International Compliance: The Kachin Armed Struggle for Political Self-Determination|publisher=ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute|year=2014|isbn=9789814519151}}</ref> By 2012 fighting between KIA and Tatmadaw forces escalated to all regions of the Kachin state. After multiple rounds of discussion, President Thein Sein declared a temporary ceasefire in May 2013 against the desires of Tatmadaw commanders on the ground.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Farrelly|first=Nicholas|date=2014-06|title=Cooperation, Contestation, Conflict: Ethnic Political Interests in Myanmar Today|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/sear.2014.0209|journal=South East Asia Research|volume=22|issue=2|pages=251–266|doi=10.5367/sear.2014.0209|issn=0967-828X}}</ref> By the end of the two year conflict, an estimated 100,000 Kachin people were displaced.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ying|first=Lwin|date=2013-01|title=The Situation of Kachin Women during the Current Political Crisis|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/12259276.2013.11666153|journal=Asian Journal of Women's Studies|volume=19|issue=2|pages=162–171|doi=10.1080/12259276.2013.11666153|issn=1225-9276}}</ref>


==Culture and traditions==
==Culture and traditions==

Revision as of 20:01, 26 April 2021

This article contains Burmese script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Burmese script.
Kachin women in traditional dress

The Kachin peoples (Jingpo: Ga Hkyeng, lit. '"red soil"'; Burmese: ကချင်လူမျိုး; MLCTS: ka. hkyang lu myui:, pronounced [kətɕɪ̀ɰ̃ lù mjó]), more precisely the Kachin Wunpong (Jingpo: Jinghpaw Wunpawng, "The Kachin Confederation") or simply Wunpong ("The Confederation"), are a confederation of ethnic groups who inhabit the Kachin Hills in northern Myanmar's Kachin State and neighbouring Yunnan Province, China, and Arunachal Pradesh, Assam in Northeastern India. About one million Kachin peoples live in the region. The term Kachin people is often used interchangeably with the main subset, called the Jingpo people in China.

The Jingpho language common to many of the Kachin has a variety of dialects and is written with a Latin-based script created in the late nineteenth century. A Burmese script version was subsequently developed. The Singhpo dialect is spoken in Northeast India and Jingpho in Southwest China.[1]

Kachins c. 1900

Kachin is an ethnicity that comprises various linguistic groups with overlapping territories and integrated social structures. Contemporary usage of Kachin relates to a grouping of six ethnicities: Rawang, the Lisu, the Jingpo, the Zaiwa, the Lashi/Lachik and the Lawngwaw/Maru.[2][3] Some definitions distinguish Kachin and Shan (Tai) peoples though some Kachin people have demonstrated the over-simplicity of the concept of lineage-based ethnic identity by culturally "becoming Shans".[4]

Etymology

There are many theories of how Kachin people got their name. One of them comes from American baptist missionary Dr. Eugenio Kincaid. When he arrived to the northern part of Myanmar, firstly he met with the Gahkyeng people. When he asked them who they were, they replied that they were the villagers from Gahkyeng. Therefore, he wrote "Ga hkyeng" in his notes. European writers called the Kachins "Kakhyens" until 1899. The book "The Great Queen is Coming 1890" described Major Ecy Brong was the first person who started using "Kachin" in Roman script.[5]

Categorisation

In Yunnan, a different categorization is applied and peoples grouped as Wunpong are grouped into four nations. The Chinese definition of Jingpo (which include all speakers of Zaiwa cluster of Northern Burmish languages) is broader than that in Kachin Hills and is somewhat comparable to Wunpong in Kachin Hills.[6] Lisu, Anung (Rawang) and Derung (Taron) peoples in Yunnan are not subordinated to ethnic Jingpo thus are classified outside the Jingpo nation:

History

British Colonial Rule and Burmese Independence

British rule in Burma began in 1824 after the first Anglo-Burmese War. Due to the remote location of the Kachin State and its rugged landscape, however, Kachin Peoples were relatively untouched by British rule. American missionaries were the first to heavily interact with Kachin Peoples and they converted large tracts of the population from animism to Christianity.[10] During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the British started replacing ethnic Burmans in the military with Chin, Kachin, and Karen soldiers. This exclusion of ethnic Burmans from the British military was formally adopted in 1925 when policy was written only allowing ethnic minorities to enlist in the army. Due to this change in military composition, many ethnic Burmans began associating the ethnic minorities with British oppression.[11] Following the Japanese invasion of Burma in 1942, many Burmese soldiers rallied together to form the Burmese Independence Army (BIA) and fight against the British alongside the Japanese. The Kachin Peoples, however, were recruited by the British and America to fight against Japanese forces with the promise of autonomy after the war. [12] After the end of World War II and British rule in the region, the Kachin Peoples agreed to join the Union of Burma at the 1947 Panglong Conference. The conference brought together Kachin, Shin, and Chan leaders - along with the Burman leader at the time General Aung San. Together they signed the Panglong Agreement which granted the ethnic border states autonomy in local administration and equal treatment by the State.[13] The assassination of General Aung San, however, reduced government support for the agreement and led to feelings of betrayals on the part of Kachin Peoples.[12]

Kachin Independence Movement

The Kachin Independence Organization (KIO) was formed on October 25, 1960 to advocate for and protect the rights of Kachin Peoples.[14] A year after its inception, the Kachin Independence Army (KIA) was created to be the armed wing of the KIO. While the KIA initially started with a hundred members, current reports from KIA commanders indicate an army 10,000 strong with another 10,000 in reserves.[15] Both the KIO and KIA support their missions with the trade of jade, timber, and other raw materials with China.[16]

1994 Ceasefire Agreement

After 33 years of insurgency, the KIO signed a ceasefire agreement with the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), ending all military missions instigated by both the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Army) and the KIO. The ceasefire primarily ended military activity but also included stipulations that the Myanmar government fund development projects in the Kachin state. At the time of signing, the KIO was facing increased military pressure from the Tatmadaw and decreasing support from foreign actors to continue warfare against the State.[17]

Border Guard Force

Prior to the 2010 elections, the Tatmadaw implored government officials to turn the KIA, along with other ethnic insurgent groups, into militia forces under the jurisdiction of the Tatmadaw.[18] The order stemmed from a military-drafted 2008 Constitution mandating all armed forces surrender their weapons, fall under the central authority of the Tatmadaw, and rebrand as Border Guard Forces (BGF).[19] The KIO refused to transform into a BGF and instead provided a counter-proposal which would rebrand the KIA as the Kachin Regional Guard Force (KRGF). The new organization would work towards ethnic equality for Kachin Peoples but the effort was dismissed by the Tatmadaw.

Land Right Disputes

Following the 1994 ceasefire, the the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) and State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) engaged in land-grabs across the Kachin State. Leveraging weak land governance policies, SLORC and SPDC invited foreign actors to invest in mining, logging, dam construction, and other infrastructure projects in lands traditionally owned by Kachin People. Furthermore, the Kachin State is rich in natural resources, particularly jade, which the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Army) and KIO fight for control over.[18] Throughout the late 1900s and early 2000s, the Tatmadaw established military presence in areas designated for commercial development, eroding the control of land under the governance of the KIO.[20]

2011 - 2013 Conflict in Kachin

Following the 2011 election of Thein Sein as President of Myanmar additional ceasefires were signed with many of the largest ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) signaling reconciliation.[18] However, on June 9, 2011 Tatmadaw forces broke the 17-year ceasefire and launched an armed offensive against the KIO along the Taping River near a hydroelectric plant.[21] During the attack, Tatmadaw forces abducted KIO Lance Corporal Chang Ying only to return his tortured body days later. The move prompted retaliation from KIO and began a series of deadly skirmishes between the two.[22] By 2012 fighting between KIA and Tatmadaw forces escalated to all regions of the Kachin state. After multiple rounds of discussion, President Thein Sein declared a temporary ceasefire in May 2013 against the desires of Tatmadaw commanders on the ground.[23] By the end of the two year conflict, an estimated 100,000 Kachin people were displaced.[24]

Culture and traditions

See also: Manau (dance)

The Kachin people are traditionally known for their disciplined fighting skills, complex clan inter-relations, craftsmanship, herbal healing and jungle survival skills. In recent decades, animist and Buddhist beliefs have been supplanted in some areas by Christianity. According to one source, approximately two-thirds of the Kachin people identify themselves as Christians,[25] while another places the figure at 90 to 95 percent.[26] Many religious rituals and symbols, such as the annual Manau festival in Myitkyina, are celebrated as folkloric traditions.[27][28]

See also

References

  1. ^ Jingpho - Ethnologue.com (limited access - may require subscription) Retrieved 15 April 2017
  2. ^ Sadan, M. 2007, TRANSLATING GUMLAU:HISTORY, THE ‘KACHIN’ AND EDMUND LEACH. in Sadan, M and Robinne, F. (eds) 2007. Social Dynamics in the Highlands of Southeast Asia, Reconsidering Political Systems of Highland Burma by E. R. Leach. Brill. Leiden, Boston.
  3. ^ Kachin National Museum, Myitkyina
  4. ^ Leach, E. R. (1965) Political Systems of Highland Burma: a study of Kachin social structure. Boston: Beacon Press.
  5. ^ Htoi Ya Tsa Ji, Mungkan hta grin nga ai Jinghpaw mabyin (4) hte Kachin Mabyin (4) hpe chye na ai lam, The Kachin Times, Volume 2,2017
  6. ^ a b The Jingpo people is divided into 5 subgroups: Jingpo, Zaiwa, Leqi, Lang'e (Langsu) and Bola.
  7. ^ 景颇族高日支系考释
  8. ^ Jingpo - Orientation
  9. ^ The Rouruo people form a sub-division of the Nu ethnic minority, which also has the sub-division of Anong people.
  10. ^ Nash, Ed (30 November 2020). "The Long War Pt. 4; The Kachin Independence Army (KIA)". Military Matters. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  11. ^ Walton, Matthew (November/December 2008). "Ethnicity, Conflict, and History in Burma: The Myths of Panglong". Asian Survey. 48: 889–910 – via JSTOR. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ a b Jaquet, Carine (3 July 2018), "Kachin history, perceptions, and beliefs: contextual elements", The Kachin Conflict : Testing the Limits of the Political Transition in Myanmar, Carnets de l’Irasec, Bangkok: Institut de recherche sur l’Asie du Sud-Est contemporaine, pp. 17–32, ISBN 978-2-35596-015-4, retrieved 29 March 2021
  13. ^ Kipgen, Nehginpao (2015). "Ethnic Nationalities and the Peace Process in Myanmar". Social Research: An International Quarterly. 82 (2): 399–425. ISSN 1944-768X.
  14. ^ Hlaing., Ganesan, N. (Narayanan), 1958- Kyaw Yin (2007). Myanmar : state, society, and ethnicity. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-434-6. OCLC 124063677.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ "Burma's Kachin army prepares for civil war". 22 February 2010. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  16. ^ author., Sun, Yun,. China, the United States and the Kachin conflict. OCLC 872666485. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Dukalskis, Alexander (3 October 2015). "Why Do Some Insurgent Groups Agree to Cease-Fires While Others Do Not? A Within-Case Analysis of Burma/Myanmar, 1948–2011". Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. 38 (10): 841–863. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2015.1056631. ISSN 1057-610X.
  18. ^ a b c South, Ashley (December 2018). "Protecting civilians in the Kachin borderlands, Myanmar: key threats and local responses" (PDF). Humanitarian Policy Group.
  19. ^ "Border guard plan could fuel ethnic conflict". The New Humanitarian. 29 November 2010. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  20. ^ Oishi, Mikio, ed. (2020). "Managing Conflicts in a Globalizing ASEAN". doi:10.1007/978-981-32-9570-4. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  21. ^ Lintner, Bertil (18 December 2012). "More war than peace in Myanmar". Asian Times.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  22. ^ Lahpai, Seng Maw (2014). Debating Democratization in Myanmar: Chapter 14 State Terrorism and International Compliance: The Kachin Armed Struggle for Political Self-Determination. ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. ISBN 9789814519151.
  23. ^ Farrelly, Nicholas (2014-06). "Cooperation, Contestation, Conflict: Ethnic Political Interests in Myanmar Today". South East Asia Research. 22 (2): 251–266. doi:10.5367/sear.2014.0209. ISSN 0967-828X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ Ying, Lwin (2013-01). "The Situation of Kachin Women during the Current Political Crisis". Asian Journal of Women's Studies. 19 (2): 162–171. doi:10.1080/12259276.2013.11666153. ISSN 1225-9276. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ "Kachin". Joshua Project. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  26. ^ Mang, Pum Za (July 2016). "Buddhist Nationalism and Burmese Christianity". Studies in World Christianity. 22 (2): 148–167. doi:10.3366/swc.2016.0147.
  27. ^ Manao Festival "to propitiate local nat (spirit)" Retrieved 15 April 2017
  28. ^ Manao Festival description Retrieved 15 April 2017

Further reading

  • Sadan, Mandy (2013). Being and Becoming Kachin: Histories Beyond the State in the Borderworlds of Burma. Oxford University Press and the British Academy.
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