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Genetic studies on the Jews is part of the population genetics. This new discipline is used to better understand the chronology of migration and thus complement the results provided by History, Archeology, Language, or Paleontology. The interest of these studies is to takle with the origins of various Jewish populations today. In particular, they are trying to determine if they are from the Middle East or not. On the other hand, they seek to know if there is a common genetic heritage on different Jewish populations.

These studies show the various strains of modern Jewish populations. However, most of these people have a common paternal genetic heritage that dates back to an old population whose members are separated and followed a different migration[1]. These discoveries trace the paternal lineage of ancestors of Jews in the Middle East. If they do not conflict with the Jewish traditions that place the origin of the Jewish people in Hebrew peoples who settled in Canaan, they draw a geographical area of origin broader than those traditions.

The maternal lineage are generally more heterogeneous. They often have a unique feature which is the founders phenomenon. In many communities, a limited number of women are the source of much of these communities. Most of the time, the origin of the parent is unknown or disputed.

Current studies tend to show a genetic significant contribution coming from conversion of native population. This is particularly the case of Khazar among Ashkenazi or Berber among the Jews of [[North Africa]].

Given the newness of the discipline and its sensitive political context, the reader will keep a critical mind on the results obtained and on their interpretations by journalists, historians, etc. This article tries to reflect the current state of research on this subject.

Introduction

We must remember above Jews never define themselves as a race[Note 1]. Conversions have always existed and have sometimes even been promoted. Moreover, given their history and in particular the Holocaust, it may seem shocking to study the genetics of Jewish populations. Moreover, some historians have stressed the ideological character that could take some research. As the historian Shlomo Sand, which asserts that genetics in Israel was already in the 1950s, a "biased science entirely dependent on a historical conception national trying to find consistency in national history Jews in the world, "believes, about the recent genetic studies, that" information on the method of selecting elements observed is tenuous and likely to arouse considerable doubt. This, more than hasty conclusions are always built and strengthened through a rhetoric devoid of any connection with the scientific laboratory "[2]. Finally, the biologist Alain F. Corcos in his book "The Myth of the Jewish race: a biologist's point of view" [3] said it would have been useful to extract DNA from ancient skeletons and compare it to the DNA from non-Jews to have a definitive interpretation of data from population genetics. Such warnings, though necessary, are outside the scope of this article.

Studies on human population genetics and especially on the Jews exist and there are many. They are made, nevertheless, in a standard scientific publications in journals with referees, they are reproducible and undergo an adversarial and open discussion. These studies have interested teams of large nationalities: French, Israeli, American, British, Italian and Spanish. It would be a pity not expose them even though the point of view of Judaism these studies did not arise. They seek to determine whether, despite the complex history of migrations, it is possible to find common ancestors of the Jewish communities present or if they are rather related to non-Jewish populations where they were received.

Since the seventies many studies have attempted to answer this question using "classic" genetic markers (blood groups, enzymes, etc.)[4]. Contradictory answers were given according to locus used[1]. One explanation for these contradictions is that the variations associated with a locus is influenced by natural selection [1].

Since the late eighties and especially since the beginning of the century, geneticists have worked on the Y chromosome (transmitted from father to son) and mitochondrial DNA (transmitted from mother to child) have the characteristic to be transmitted in full (without mutation). It is therefore possible to trace the common ancestors of various peoples of the world and especially those of Jewish populations. Moreover, very recent studies have been conducted on a large number of genes homologous chromosomes or autosomes (all chromosomes except chromosomes X and Y).

With one exception[5], these studies do not attempt to determine any jewish gene. During a scientific conference in 2003 in the United States, the Jewish American biologist Robert Pollack, Columbia University and several scientists have clearly rejected the fact that we can determine the biologically " Jewishness "an individual because there is simply no DNA sequence that is present among Jews and absent among non-Jews [6].

It may seem paradoxical at first sight, to say the one hand there is no jewish gene and on the other hand a number of Jewish community in the world have a common genetic origin. This is because population genetics is not concerned with individuals but statistical studies on populations. They seek to determine, for example the percentage of "genes" (or more exactly haplogroups) shared between two populations.

Reading the rest of this article may require some knowledge about the genetics of populations which we can find a [[Population genetics # Simplified Introduction to Human Population Genetics | simplified introduction]] on Wikipedia.

We are part of studies on the Y chromosome and those on the mitochondrial DNA and autosomal studies finally on all non-sex chromosomes. A fourth paragraph reported studies on genetically similar populations. Finally, fifth paragraph provides internal and external links for genetic studies on various populations of the globe and popular articles on the subject.

Lineage paternal DNA, chromosome Y

The first to have shown the existence of a common paternal genetic heritage between sephardic and ashkenazi Jews are G. Lucotte and F. David in 1992[7] then this was refined in 1993[8].

In 1993, A. S. Santachiara Benerecetti et al. have suggested the Middle Eastern origin of Jewish paternal lineages[9].

In 2000, M. Hammer et al. conducted a study on 1371 men and definitively established that part of the paternal gene pool of Jewish communities in Europe, North Africa and Middle East came from a common Middle East ancestral population and suggested that most Jewish communities remained relatively isolated communities of non-Jewish neighbors during their stay in Diaspora[1].

According to A. Nebel et al., over 70% of Jewish men and half of Arab men (head only Israel or the Palestinian territories) whose DNA was studied inherited their Y chromosomes from the same paternal ancestors who lived in the region it A few thousands of years[10].

However in 2005 a review article by Ellen Levy-Coffman[11] weighting these results by pointing out that these particular ancestors are also shared by much of the population of the Mediterranean in particular southern Europe.

Approximately 30% to 40% of Jews have the haplogroup J[Note 2] and its sub-haplogroups. This Haplogroup is particularly present in the Middle East and on the southern and eastern Mediterranean[12]. Furthermore, 15 to 30% own the haplogroup E1b1b[Note 3] (or E-M35) and its sub-haplogroups.

Y-DNA of Ashkenazim Jews

The term "Ashkenazi" is relatively well defined in these studies, it refers to Jews living or whose "paternal" ancestors lived in the following part of Europe: the Rhine Valley in France, Germany, Holland, Austria, Hungary, former Czechoslovakia, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia and Ukraine. This excludes the Jews of southern Europe (Balkans, Iberia and Italy).

All studies have shown that there is a common paternal genetic heritage among Ashkenazim and other Jewish communities and the heritage from the Middle East. However they are also leaning on European genetic contributions among this population.

According to M. Hammer et al. in 2000[1], the overall European genetic contribution is estimated between 16 and 30% (assuming a 23% average)[Note 4]. In addition, the authors show a strong similarity with the non-Jewish Greek and Turkish populations.

Moreover, given that haplogroup R1b1 is particularly abundant in populations of Western Europe, studies of A. Nebel[13] and D. Behar[14] suggest a contribution of about 10% of Western European tradition among Ashkenazim. For G. Lucotte et al. [15], the West-European contribution is about 11%[Note 5].

In 2004, the largest study made on Ashkenazi Jews, Doron Behar et al.[14] gives a percentage of European contribution of 5% (excluding Jews from Netherlands). But the results were challenged by E. Coffman-Levy[11]. She said that among other haplogroup J2 is not specifically Semitic, because it appears in high proportions in Greece and Crete.

Two studies of A. Nebel et al. (2001 [13] and 2005 [16]) indicate a high frequency (12.7%) of haplogroup R1a1[Note 6] among Ashkenazim is very common in populations of eastern Europe (between 54 and 60%). The authors suggest that these chromosomes may account for a genetic contribution from Eastern European populations and in particular about 12% of the paternal gene pool of Ashkenazi Jews could come from Khazars.

Furthermore, it is interesting to note that 7% [14] · [17] of Ashkenazi have the haplogroup G2c, which is extremely rare in the rest of the human population. It seems to be present in a small percentage in the Pashtuns in Afghanistan but the origin of this haplogroup is unknown. The haplogroup Q1b (M378) is also rare in the rest of the human population. It is found in Hazara and Sindhi [18] which are two nomadic tribes in Pakistan.

Among Ashkenazi Jews, Jews of Netherlands seem to have a particular haplogroups distribution since nearly one quarter of them have the Haplogroup R1b1 (P25-L) characteristics of Western Europe populations[14] in particular sub-haplogroup R1b1b2 (M269).

Haplogroup distribution in Ashkénazi
E1b1b1 (M35)
G (M201)
J1 ou J* (12f2b)
J2 (M172)
Q1 (P36)
R1a1 (M17)
R1b1 (P25)
Sample number
E1b1b1a
(M78)
E1b1b1c (M123)
G2c (M377)
J1 (M267)
J*
J2a* (M410)
J2a1b (M67)
Q1b (M378)
R1b1b2
(M269)
R1b1* (P25)
Behar 2004 [14]
442
16.1 %
7,7 %
19 %
19 %
5,2 %
7,5 %
10 %
Semino 2004[12]
~ 80
5,2 %
11,7 %
Not tested
14,6 %
12,2 %
9,8 %
Not tested
Not tested
Not tested
Hammer 2009 [17]
important[Note 7]
~ 3%
~ 17 %
~ 7 %
~ 17 %
~ 6 %
~ 14 %
~ 7 %
Not given
~ 9 %
~ 2 %
Nebel 2001[13]
79
23 %
?
24 %
19 %
?
12,7 %
 ?
Shen[19]
20
10 %
10 %
5 %
20 %
5 %
15 %
5 %
20 %
10 %

Y-DNA of Sephardic Jews

The term Sephardic population is refering to significantly different populations from one study to another. It can have a very restrictive meaning and only refering to people speaking Judeo-Spanish (excluding Moroccan Jews) or at the opposite the term Sephardic may designate all non-Ashkenazi populations (excluding Jews from Ethiopia, Yemen and the Kurdish Jews). Between these two extremes, all kinds of variations exist. We preferred the fidelity to the original articles rather than coherence. We have tried to indicate every time what this term referred.

Investigations made by Nebel et al.[13] on the genetic relationships among Ashkenazi Jews, Kurdish and Sephardic (North Africa, Turkey, Iberian Peninsula, Iraq and Syria) indicate that Jews are more genetically similar groups in northern Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks and Armenians) than their Arab neighbors. It should be noted that only a very small sample of 78 individuals was studied (including 37 North African Jews, mainly from Morocco).

Y-DNA of Jews from North Africa

The largest study to date on the Jews of North Africa has been led by Gerard Lucotte et al. in 2003 [15]. This study showed that the Jews of North Africa [Note 8] showed frequencies of their paternal haplotypes almost equal to those of the Lebanese and Palestinian non-Jews.

The authors also compared the distribution of haplotypes of Jews from North Africa with the Jews and the Ashkenazi Jews of Eastern and found a common heritage but also significant differences, including the presence of haplotype is mainly found in Africa North at first. This haplotype V [Note 9] has a proportion of 18.6% among Jews of North Africa. The authors emphasize that this haplotype appears in similar proportions among the Palestinians (15.9%) and Lebanon (16.7%).

Ellen Coffman-Levy, in a review article in 2005 [11] also reported that the significant presence of different subgroups (E1b1b1a E-M78 and E1b1b1b E-M81) of haplogroup E1b1b among Sephardic Jews, although that may result from a "genetic drift" was most likely due to a genetic contribution of Berbers and Spanish [Note 10]. Note for example that over 70% of the Berbers of Morocco have haplogroup E1b1b [12].

It also suggests that a significant proportion of haplogroup E1b1b1 is haplogroup E1b1b1c (E-M123) could be a candidate for a Jewish origin, the latter appearing in the same proportions (10 to 12%) among Ashkenazi and Sephardic. However, we must not forget that this haplogroup as haplogroup none is specifically "Jewish". It is present in many populations as the Kabyle of North Africa at the same frequency (10.50%[Note 11]).

Note, also, that in the article Lucotte a proportion of 8.4% of haplotype IV, which is found mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa, is present among Jews of North Africa. There is no clear correlation between this haplotype and the YCC haplogroups. No component sub-Saharan Africa has been detected in other studies dealing with Sephardic Jews including articles referring to Jews of Morocco and those of Libya.

The Jewish community of the island of Djerba in Tunisia is of special interest, making the tradition back to the time of the destruction of the First Temple. Two studies have attempted to test this hypothesis first by G. Lucotte et al. from 1993 [21], the second of F. Manni et al. of 2005 [22]. They also conclude that the genetic father of the Jews of Djerba is different from the Arab s and Berber s of the island. For the first 77.5% of samples tested are of haplotype VIII (probably similar to the J haplogroup according Lucotte), the second shows that 100% of the samples are of Haplogroup J *. The second suggests that it is unlikely that the majority of this community comes from an ancient colonization of the island while for Lucotte it is unclear whether this high frequency is really an ancient relationship.

These studies therefore suggest that the genetic father of the Jews of North Africa comes predominantly from the Middle East with a contribution of significant factors probably Berbers.

Y-DNA of the Jews of the Iberian Peninsula

A recent study by Inês Nogueiro et al. (July 2009) on the Jews of the north-eastern Portugal (region of Trás-os-Montes) showed that their paternal lines consisted of 28% of haplogroups R1b1b2-M269, features populations of Western Europe and 53% of Near Eastern lines (D1: 12%, J2-M172: 25% and T-M70: 16%) and consequently, the Portuguese Jews of this region were genetically closer to other Jewish population that the Portuguese non-Jews [23].

Y-DNA of Oriental Jews

Furthermore, Lucotte et al. show that Oriental Jews (Turkey - 19, Greece - 10 Iraq - 12 Iran - 12, Syria - 3) have a similar distribution of haplotypes, but with significant differences in the Lebanese and Palestinian non-Jews [Note 12].

Y-DNA of Roman Jews

The Roman Jews are as their name suggests Jews were distinguished as originating in Rome, Italy. Mr. Hammer et al.[1] show their paternal lines are close to those of Ashkenazi Jews.

Y-DNA of Kurdish Jews

In the article by Nebel et al.[13] the authors show that Kurdish and Sephardic Jews have paternal genetic heritage indistinguishable. The study shows that mixtures between Kurdish Jews and their Muslim hosts are negligible. Mr. Hammer [1] had already shown the strong correlation between the genetic heritage of Jews from North Africa with their fellow Kurds.

Y-DNA of the Jews of Yemen

The studies of Shen [19] and Hammer [1] et al. show that the genetic father of [[History of Jews in Yemen | Yemeni Jews] ] is similar to that of other Jewish populations.

Y-DNA of Jews from Ethiopia

A study of [24] Lucotte and Smets has shown that the genetic father of Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews) was close to the Ethiopian non-Jewish populations. This is consistent with the fact that Beta Israel are descendants of ancient inhabitants of Ethiopia, not the Middle East.

Hammer et al. in 2000 [1] and the team of Shen in 2004 [19] arrive at similar conclusions, namely a genetic differentiation in - other people in the north of Ethiopia, which probably indicates a conversion of local populations.

priestly families

Study on Cohanim

Dr. Karl Skorecki, a nephrologist Canadian Ashkenazi origin, noticed a man who was a Sephardic Cohen as he had completely different physical characteristics. According to Jewish tradition, all the Cohanim are descendants of the priest Aaron, brother of Moses. Skorecki suggested that if the Cohanim were indeed the descendants of one man, they should have a set of common genetic markers.

To test this hypothesis, he contacted Dr. Michael Hammer of the [[University of Arizona]], a researcher in molecular genetics and a pioneer in research on chromosome. [25] Their article, published in Nature in 1997, has had some impact. A set of special markers (called Cohen Modal Haplotype or CMH) was indeed more likely to be present in the Cohanim, contemporary Jews named Cohen or a derivative, and this is supposed to descend from the ancient priestly lineage than in the Jewish population in general. A common origin had been strictly preserved for thousands of years.

However, subsequent studies [26] showed that the number of genetic markers used and the number of samples (of people saying Cohen) were not big enough. The last study conducted in 2009 by Hammer and Behar et al.[17] tells us that there is no single common haplogroup in all but 21 Cohen and 79.5% of haplogroups of Cohen from 5 haplogroups. Among these the first 5 haplogroups (J-P58 * or J1E) accounts for 46.1% of Cohen and the second (J-M410 or J2a) of 14.4%. Hammer and Behar have redefined an extended MHC haplotype as determined by a set of 12 markers and having as "background" haplogroup determining the most important lines J1E (46.1%). This haplotype is absent among non-Jews in 2099 analyzed in the study. It appeared there would be a 3000 + / - 1000 years. This study nevertheless confirms that the current Cohen descended from a small number of paternal ancestors.

For more details you can refer to the Wikipedia article Y-chromosomal Aaron.

Study on Levi

Unlike Cohanim, studies [27] on Levi show a disparity between the original Levi Ashkenazi and Sephardic (non-Ashkenazi). Indeed, a significant proportion (50% of samples tested) of Levi Ashkenazi has a close haplogroup R1a1 European haplogroups while haplogroup of Sephardic Levi is close haplogroups in Near Eastern populations. The authors hypothesize a Khazar origin of Levi with the haplogroup R1a1.

For more details you can refer to the English Wikipedia article [[: en: Y-chromosomal Aaron # Y-chromosomal Levi | Levi Y-chromosome]].

Maternal line: Mitochondrial DNA

Studies of mitochondrial DNA of Jewish populations are more recent and are still debatable. However, it seems that there is no maternal lines common to all Jewish people.

Until 2006, geneticists attributed most often the origin of Jewish populations of male individuals who emigrated from the Middle East and taking women as wives in the indigenous populations, they converted to Judaism. However, more recent studies [28] invited to review this claim, at least for Ashkenazim.

On the other hand, it appears that a number of Jewish community a limited number of women are the source of much of these communities [29]. This phenomenon is called founder effect (founder effect). It is rare in non-Jewish communities.

Mt-DNA of Ashkenazi Jews

In a 2006 study, D. Behar et al. suggest that the genetic mother of 40% of Ashkenazim come "ancestors of 4 women" living 2,000 years ago whose origin is not European. Moreover, the presence of maternal line "sister" among the Jews of North Africa, from France, Italy and Portugal suggests an original Hebrew or Levant e [30].

Another study by J. Feder et al.[31] confirms the hypothesis of the founding of non-local origin but she does not explicitly confirm the origin "Levantine" of these founders.

Mt-DNA of Jews from North Africa

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of the Jewish populations of North Africa has been the subject of further detailed study in 2008 by Doron Behar et al.[28]. It shows that Jews from parts of North Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, Libya) do not share the haplogroup s of the mitochondrial DNA typical North African (M1 and U6) of Berber and Arab populations. Similarly, while the frequency of haplogroups L Sub-Saharan around an average of 20-25% at the Berber populations studied, it is only 1.3%, 2.7% and 3.6% respectively among Jews from Morocco, Tunisia and Libya [32].

The study of D. Behar also shows that the Jews of North Africa do not share their main maternal lineages with Jews in the Middle East.

The study also reveals that about 40% of Libya's Jews are descendants of one woman and that 43% of Tunisian Jews descended from 4 women. The maternal line shared by the Jews of Libya and Tunisia has an origin that lies in a region from near and Middle East to the Caucasus.

The maternal lines of the Jews of Morocco are very different [19]  · [28]. G. Thomas demonstrates a founder effect but this has been disputed.

Thus, genetic studies show origins "native" variety among Jews from Morocco, Tunisia and Libya (the Jews of Algeria had meanwhile not been specific studies) but tend to refute the thesis of a predominantly Berber origin.

Mt-DNA of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula

The data (mt-DNA) recovered by D. Behar et al. are located in the village of Belmonte in Portugal in a community descended from crypto-Jews. It is not possible to generalize the entire Iberian Peninsula.

Mt-DNA of Jews from Ethiopia

The results are similar to those of the male population, namely genetic characteristics identical to those of surrounding populations [29].

Mt-DNA of the Jews of Turkey

Mt-DNA of the Jews of Turkey is extremely divergent [28] which means that the genetic mother is from very different origins. It is interesting to note that we found a strain of Iberian type which is consistent with historical data.

Mt-DNA of the Jews of Georgia

According to the study of G. Thomas et al.[29] 51% of Georgian Jews descended from a single female (58% according to Behar [28]). Unfortunately, once again it is not possible to determine the origin of this lineage.

Mt-DNA of Jews from Yemen

In a study by Richards et al. [33] authors suggest that a minor proportion of haplogroup L1 and L3A lineage from sub-Saharan Africa is present among Jews from Yemen. However, these lines are 4 times smaller in proportion than among non-Jewish Yemenis. These sub-Saharan haplogroups are virtually absent among Jews from Iraq, Iran and Georgia and are completely absent among Ashkenazi Jews.

The Jewish population of Yemen has also a founder effect. 42% of maternal lines come from 5 women [28] originating in western Asia for 4 of them and sub-Saharan Africa for the last.

Mt-DNA of Cochin Jews and of Israel Bnei Indian subcontinent

According to the study of 2008 [28] D. Behar et al., it is clear that the maternal lineage of the Jews of India has a local origin for the vast majority of the community. However, it appears that the genetic mother always include a maternal line of origin Iraqi / Iranian or Italian.

Homologous chromosome or autosomes

The studies are called autosomal chromosomes of the 22 homologous or autosomes (non sex chromosomes) rather than on the paternal or maternal lines.

An initial study [34] conducted in 2001 by N. Rosenberg et al. six on Jewish populations (Poland, Libya, Ethiopia, Iraq, Morocco, Yemen) and two non-Jewish populations (Palestinians and Druze) shows that while 8 people are close, the Jews of Libya have a genetic signature separate from their genetic isolation and a possible combination with Berber populations [Note 13]. This same study suggests a close relationship between Jews of Yemen and those of Ethiopia.

According to a recent study of autosomal Kopelman et al. (December 2009), Ashkenazi Jews, Turks, Moroccans and Tunisians, share a common origin and Middle East are quite close to Palestinians. However, in this study, the Tunisian Jews are distinct from three other Jewish populations, which might tend to suggest, according to the authors, a greater genetic isolation and / or a significant contribution of local Berber as in the case of Libyan Jews [35]. In this study, the authors also state, on the hypothesis of the origin of Khazar Ashkenazi Jews, that they did not detect differences between Ashkenazi Jews and other Jewish populations to verify this hypothesis, they Nonetheless, there detected a similarity between the Adyghe (a group of Caucasus whose land was formerly occupied by the Khazars) and Jewish populations studied, as was observed by Need et al. in another study [5].

Another study of L. Hao et al. (October 2009) [36] who studied seven groups of Jewish populations of different geographic origin (Ashkenazi, Italians, Greeks, Turks, Iranians, Iraqis and Syrians) showed that people shared all a Middle Eastern background common although genetically distinguishable from each other, this distinction reflects mixtures with different local populations. Thus, among the Jewish populations studied, the authors detected a European contribution ranging from 30% to 60% among Syrian Jews, Sephardim and Ashkenazim and virtually absent in the Iranian and Iraqi Jews.

Comparison with the genetic heritage of non-Jewish populations

The Samaritans

Samaritans

The Samaritans are an ancient northern population of historic Palestine, where they are historically well identified since at least the fourth century BC. They define themselves as the descendants of [[Tribe of Ephraim | tribes of Ephraim]] and Manasseh (two tribes from the Tribe of Joseph) living in the [ [Kingdom of Samaria]] before its destruction in -722. For them, the Jews are the descendants of the Israelites from ancient southern kingdom of Judah (and Jerusalem).

A study Peidond Shen et al. in 2004 [19] compared the Y-DNA and DNA-mt Samaritans of 12 men with those of 158 men not Samaritans, divided between 6 Jewish populations (Ashkenazi origin, Moroccan, Libyan, Ethiopian, Iraqi and Yemeni) and 2 non-Jewish populations Israel (Druze and Arab). The study concludes that significant similarities exist between paternal lines of Jews and Samaritans, but the maternal lines differ between the two populations.

The Lembas

The Lembas clans are scattered among the Bantu-speaking tribes in Zimbabwe and northern South Africa. The oral tradition traces the origin of the Jewish Lembas Saana in Yemen. Some practices reminiscent of Jewish practices (circumcision, food law, ...). Two studies have attempted to determine the paternal origin of these tribes. The first by A. Spurdle and T. Jenkins [37] dates from 1996 and suggests that more than half of Lembas tested are of Semitic origin [Note 14]. The second study by Mark G. Thomas et al. [38] dates from 2000 and also suggests that part of Lembas have a Semitic origin that can come from a mixture of Arab and Jewish [Note 15]. In addition, the authors show that clans Lemba (Buba clan) has a large proportion of the former MHC.

Inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula

According to a study by Adams in 2008 [39] the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula would average 20% of Sephardic Jewish ancestry with significant geographical variations ranging from 0% to 36.3% in Minorca in the southern Portugal (the term Sephardic is used here in its strict sense to know the Jews settled in the Iberian peninsula before the expulsion in 1492). This origin could also, according to the authors, be of Neolithic origin.

See also

Popular articles on the topic

Population genetics is a growing discipline whose findings have led many articles and extension sites. The conclusions of these items sometimes go beyond what the discipline can determine now, readers are asked to keep a certain distance.

Regarding the studies on the Jews, the most comprehensive site is [http://www.khazaria.com/genetics/abstracts.html Khazaria Info Center] Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page)..

Furthermore, we will read four articles in English on the subject:

Paul S. Appelbaum (12 February 2008). "Genetics and the Jewish identity". Retrieved September 25, 2009. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |Jerusalem Post newspaper= (help); line feed character in |title= at position 17 (help)

"Priestly Gene Shared By Widely Dispersed Jews". American Society for Technion, Israel Institute of Technology. 1998. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); line feed character in |journal= at position 21 (help); line feed character in |title= at position 9 (help)

Genetic studies on other human populations

The site [http://www.eupedia.com/europe/origines_haplogroupes_europe.shtml Eupedia] haplogroups dedicated primarily to European populations is an excellent introduction to population genetics especially as it is in French and is , more regularly updated.

Three private projects attempt to map the genome of the entire population of the globe and trace their migrations. These [http://www.genebase.com/ Genebase] of [http://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/index.html Genographic Project] from National Geographic and DNA Ancestry Project. Only the first site provides access to a database full of haplogroups in populations.

Internal Links

A summary table giving the percentage of each of the Y chromosome haplogroup based on different populations, is provided on the page in English Wikipedia [[: en: Y-DNA_haplogroups_by_ethnic_groups | DNA_haplogroups_by_ethnic_groups-Y]].

Various studies have been conducted on groups other than Jews to better understand their origin. Some are addressed in Wikipedia:

Other internal links on the subject:

Notes and References

Notes

  1. ^ We can recall such that Sephora (or Tzippora) the first wife of Moses was a Kushite that is to say she was from Sudan or Ethiopia
  2. ^ The haplogroup J was called [[Conversion table for Y chromosome haplogroup | Eu9/Eu10, Med or HG9]] before 2002
  3. ^ E1b1b Haplogroup was called E3b before 2008 and was called EU4 or HG25 before 2002, this haplogroup is also consistent with the haplotype V defined by Lucotte
  4. ^ This percentage is obtained by haplotypes differentiation with 6 STR markers
  5. ^ Lucotte uses a different method from that used by most researchers genetics since 2002, it is called RFLP (Restriction Fragment Lengh Polymorphism): TaqI/p49af. It is difficult to make a rapprochement with the haplogroups defined by the YCC. It is interesting to note that both methods give similar results.
  6. ^ Formerly known as Eu19 or HG3
  7. ^ The study as been carried out on 1575 Jews representative of the Diaspora. The authors give the haplogroupe distribution without given the proportion of ashkenazi/Non Ashkenazi
  8. ^ Sephardic population studied is as follows: 58 Jews from Algeria, 190 Morocco, Tunisia 64, 49 of the island of Djerba 9 of 11 from Libya and Egypt is 381 people
  9. ^ is equivalent according to the authors to E1b1b
  10. ^ "The higher frequency of E-M78 among Sephardic groups may be the result of pronounced genetic drift, or more likely, gene flow from North African and Spanish populations. The likelihood of European and North African gene flow is further supported by the fact that another sub-clade E-M81, occurs only among Sephardim (Semino et al. 2004). It is also found in very high percentages among North Africans. Its frequency among the Sephardim at 5% is comparable to that seen in Spanish populations, again suggesting possible gene flow from Spanish and Berber populations into Sephardic groups "Coffman-Levy 2005
  11. ^ Among 19 Tamazigh Berber language in the region of Tizi Ouzu - The haplogroup is formerly E1b1b1c E3b3a known in the study Arredi et al. 2004 [20]
  12. ^ The Oriental and Ashkenazi Jews are significantly different from the Lebanese and Palestinian non-Jews, and the Ashkenazi are significantly different from the Oriental and Sephardic Jewish communities, Lucotte 2003
  13. ^ "This population has a unique history among North African Jewish communities, including an early founding, a harsh bottleneck, possible admixture with local Berbers, limited contact with other Jewish communities, and small size in the recent past "
  14. ^ The authors used a method RFLP of 49 individuals Lembas
  15. ^ The authors 6 STR markers tested on 136 male Lembas

References

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  2. ^ [[Shlomo Sand]],How the Jewish people was invented , ch. "The distinction identity. Identity politics in Israel, "Fayard, pp.378-387
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