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* Excretion: eccrine sweat gland secretion can also provide a significant excretory route for water and electrolytes.{{sfn|Romich|2009|p=203}}
* Excretion: eccrine sweat gland secretion can also provide a significant excretory route for water and electrolytes.{{sfn|Romich|2009|p=203}}
* Protection: eccrine sweat gland secretion aids in preserving the skin's [[acid mantle]], which helps protect the skin from colonization from bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.<ref>{{cite book | last=Marples|first= Mary J. | title=The ecology of the human skin | year=1965| ol=5915977M|isbn=9780398012182}}</ref>
* Protection: eccrine sweat gland secretion aids in preserving the skin's [[acid mantle]], which helps protect the skin from colonization from bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.<ref>{{cite book | last=Marples|first= Mary J. | title=The ecology of the human skin | year=1965| ol=5915977M|isbn=9780398012182}}</ref>

==Apoeccrine==
Some human sweat glands cannot be classified as either apocrine or eccrine, having characteristics of both; such glands are termed ''apoeccrine''.{{sfn|Wilke|Martin|Terstegen|Biel|2007|p=171}} They are larger than eccrine glands, but smaller than apocrine ones;<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Cooper|editor-first=Grant|title=Therapeutic Uses of Botulinum Toxin|year=2007|publisher=Humana Press|location=Totowa, N.J.|isbn=9781597452472|page=155}}</ref> their secretory portion has a narrow portion similar to secretory coils in eccrine glands and an wide section reminiscent of apocrine glands.<ref>{{cite book | publisher=KARGER | isbn=3-8055-7306-5 | volume=30 | pages=1-9 | editors=Kreyden, O.P.; Burg, G. | last=Böni | first=R. | coauthors=Groscurth, P. | title=Current Problems in Dermatology | chapter=Anatomy of Sweat Glands | location=Basel | accessdate=6 June 2013 | year=2002 | chapterurl=http://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/60678}}</ref>

Apoeccrine are found in the armpits and perianal region and have ducts opening onto the skin surface.<ref>{{cite book | publisher=Karger Publishers | isbn=3805573065 | last=Kreyden | first=Oliver Philip | coauthors=Böni, Roland Emil; Burg, Günter | title=Hyperhidrosis and Botulinum Toxin in Dermatology: 18 Tables | year= 2002|page=8}}</ref> Presumed to have developed in puberty from the eccrine glands,{{sfn|Wilke|Martin|Terstegen|Biel|2007|p=175}} apoeccrine ones can comprise up to 50% of all axillary glands. They secrete more sweat than both eccrine and apocrine glands, and thus play a large role in axillary sweating.{{sfn|Wilke|Martin|Terstegen|Biel|2007|p=176}} Apoeccrine glands are sensitive to cholinergic activity, though they can also be activated via adrenergic stimulation.{{sfn|Wilke|Martin|Terstegen|Biel|2007|p=171}} Like eccrine glands, they continuously secrete a thin, watery sweat.{{sfn|Wilke|Martin|Terstegen|Biel|2007|p=176}}

===Others===
Specialized sweat glands, including the [[ceruminous gland]]s, [[mammary gland]]s, the ciliary glands of the eyelids, and sweat glands of the [[nasal vestibulum]], are modified apocrine glands.<ref name=hogin06>{{cite book| publisher = Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.| isbn = 9781402737886| last = McMurtrie| first = Hogin| title = McMurtrie's Human Anatomy Coloring Book: A Systemic Approach to the Study of the Human Body: Thirteen Systems| date = 28 November 2006|page=430}}</ref>{{sfn|Krstic|2004|p=466}} Ceruminous glands are near the ear canals, and produce cerumen (earwax) that mixes with the oil secreted from the [[sebaceous glands]].{{sfn|Romich|2009|p=206}}<ref name=hogin06 /> Mammary glands use apocrine secretion to produce milk.<ref name=vanlommel />


==Secretion==
Sweat glands are used to regulate temperature and remove waste by secreting water, [[sodium salt]]s, [[nitrogenous waste]] (such as urea) onto the skin surface.{{sfn|Romich|2009|p=203}}{{sfn|Eroschenko|2008|p=215}} The main electrolytes of sweat are [[sodium]] and [[chloride]],<ref>{{cite book | publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences | isbn=1416024433 | last=Frontera | first=Walter R. | title=Clinical Sports Medicine: Medical Management and Rehabilitation | year= 2007|page=29}}</ref> though the amount is small enough to make sweat [[hypotonic]] at the skin surface.{{sfn|Slegers|1964|271}} Eccrine sweat is clear, odorless, and is composed of 98–99% water; it also contains [[NaCl]], [[fatty acids]], [[lactic acid]], [[citric acid]], absorbic acid, urea, and [[uric acid]]. Its [[pH]] ranges from 4 to 6.8.<ref name=draelos10 /> On the other hand, the apocrine sweat has a pH of 6 to 7.5; it contains water, proteins, carbohydrate waste material, lipids, and [[steroid]]s. The sweat oily, cloudy, viscous, and originally odorless;<ref name=draelos10 /> it gains odor upon decomposition by bacteria. Because both apocrine glands and sebaceous glands open into the hair follicle, apocrine sweat is mixed with [[sebum]].{{sfn|Wilke|Martin|Terstegen|Biel|2007|pp=175}}


==Pathology==
==Pathology==
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<ref name=caceci>{{cite web| last = Caceci| first = Thomas| publisher = Virginia–Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine| title = Integument I: Skin| work = VM8054 Veterinary Histology Laboratory Exercises| accessdate = 19 December 2012| url = http://www.vetmed.vt.edu/education/curriculum/vm8054/labs/lab14/lab14.htm}}</ref>
<ref name=caceci>{{cite web| last = Caceci| first = Thomas| publisher = Virginia–Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine| title = Integument I: Skin| work = VM8054 Veterinary Histology Laboratory Exercises| accessdate = 19 December 2012| url = http://www.vetmed.vt.edu/education/curriculum/vm8054/labs/lab14/lab14.htm}}</ref>
<ref name=dorlands>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers|year=2007|publisher=Saunders|postscript=,}} cited in {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The Free Dictionary|publisher=Farlex|title=apocrine sweat gland|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/apocrine+sweat+gland|accessdate=6 June 2013}}</ref>
<ref name=dorlands>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers|year=2007|publisher=Saunders|postscript=,}} cited in {{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The Free Dictionary|publisher=Farlex|title=apocrine sweat gland|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/apocrine+sweat+gland|accessdate=6 June 2013}}</ref>
<ref name=draelos10>{{cite book| publisher = Springer| isbn = 9781849960267| editor-first = R. A.|editor-last= Norman| last = Draelos| first = Zoe Diana| title = Preventitive Dermatology| chapter = Prevention of Cosmetic Problems| year = 2010|doi=10.1007/978-1-84996-021-2_16|page=182}}</ref>
<ref name=grayanat>{{cite book| edition = 20th| publisher = Lea & Febiger| last = Gray| first = Henry| title = Anatomy of the Human Body| chapter = The Organs of the Senses and the Common Integument| location = Philadelphia| year = 1918|url=http://www.bartleby.com/107/234.html}}</ref>
<ref name=grayanat>{{cite book| edition = 20th| publisher = Lea & Febiger| last = Gray| first = Henry| title = Anatomy of the Human Body| chapter = The Organs of the Senses and the Common Integument| location = Philadelphia| year = 1918|url=http://www.bartleby.com/107/234.html}}</ref>
<ref name=kennedy94>{{cite journal| issn = 0270-6474| volume = 14| issue = 11 pt. 2| page = 6825| last = Kennedy| first = W. R.| first2 = G.|last2= Wendelschafer-Crabb|first3= T. C.|last3= Brelje| title = Innervation and vasculature of human sweat glands: an immunohistochemistry-laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy study| journal = The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience| date = November 1994}}</ref>
<ref name=kennedy94>{{cite journal| issn = 0270-6474| volume = 14| issue = 11 pt. 2| page = 6825| last = Kennedy| first = W. R.| first2 = G.|last2= Wendelschafer-Crabb|first3= T. C.|last3= Brelje| title = Innervation and vasculature of human sweat glands: an immunohistochemistry-laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy study| journal = The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience| date = November 1994}}</ref>
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<ref name=saunders03>{{cite encyclopedia| edition = 7th| publisher = Saunders| title = sweat gland| encyclopedia = Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health| accessdate = 18 December 2012| year = 2003| url = http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/sweat+gland}}</ref>
<ref name=saunders03>{{cite encyclopedia| edition = 7th| publisher = Saunders| title = sweat gland| encyclopedia = Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health| accessdate = 18 December 2012| year = 2003| url = http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/sweat+gland}}</ref>
<ref name=slatter03>{{cite book| publisher = Elsevier Health Sciences| isbn = 9780721686073| volume = 2| editor-first = Douglas H.|editor-last= Slatter| title = Textbook of Small Animal Surgery| year = 2003|page=253}}</ref>
<ref name=slatter03>{{cite book| publisher = Elsevier Health Sciences| isbn = 9780721686073| volume = 2| editor-first = Douglas H.|editor-last= Slatter| title = Textbook of Small Animal Surgery| year = 2003|page=253}}</ref>
<ref name=vanlommel>{{cite book| publisher = Springer| isbn = 9781402072574| last = Van Lommel| first = Alfons T. L.| title = From Cells to Organs: A Histology Textbook and Atlas| year = 2003|pages=199, 201}}</ref>
}}
}}


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*{{cite book| publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins| isbn = 9781605479682| last = Rubin| first = Raphael | first2= David Sheldon |last2=Strayer| title = Rubin's Pathology: Clinicopathologic Foundations of Medicine| date = 29 March 2011|pages=1043, 1048|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book| publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins| isbn = 9781605479682| last = Rubin| first = Raphael | first2= David Sheldon |last2=Strayer| title = Rubin's Pathology: Clinicopathologic Foundations of Medicine| date = 29 March 2011|pages=1043, 1048|ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal |first=Vibeke W.|last=Sørensen|first2=Gaya|last2=Prasad| title=On the fine structure of horse sweat glands | journal=Zeitschrift für Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte | year=1973 | volume=139 | pages=173–183 | url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/m3103x6v14300160/ | doi= 10.1007/BF00523636 | issue=2 | pmid=4352229|ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal |first=Vibeke W.|last=Sørensen|first2=Gaya|last2=Prasad| title=On the fine structure of horse sweat glands | journal=Zeitschrift für Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte | year=1973 | volume=139 | pages=173–183 | url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/m3103x6v14300160/ | doi= 10.1007/BF00523636 | issue=2 | pmid=4352229|ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal| doi = 10.1007/BF00362480| issn =1432-2013| volume = 279| issue = 3| pages = 265–273| last = Slegers| first = J. F. G.| title = The mechanism of sweat-secretion| journal = Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere| accessdate = 23 December 2012| year = 1964| url = http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2FBF00362480|publisher=Spinger-Verlag|format=pdf|ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-2494.2007.00387.x| issn = 1468-2494| volume = 29| issue = 3| pages = 169–179| last = Wilke| first = K.| first2 = A.|last2= Martin|first3= L. |last3=Terstegen|first4= S. S.|last4= Biel| title = A short history of sweat gland biology| journal = International journal of cosmetic science| date = June 2007|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2007.00387.x/pdf|format=pdf|ref=harv}}
*{{cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-2494.2007.00387.x| issn = 1468-2494| volume = 29| issue = 3| pages = 169–179| last = Wilke| first = K.| first2 = A.|last2= Martin|first3= L. |last3=Terstegen|first4= S. S.|last4= Biel| title = A short history of sweat gland biology| journal = International journal of cosmetic science| date = June 2007|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2007.00387.x/pdf|format=pdf|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}

Revision as of 08:08, 7 June 2013

Sweat gland
A cross-section of the human skin, with the sweat gland labeled at the bottom
Details
PrecursorEctoderm[3]
SystemIntegumentary[3]
NerveEccrine: cholinergic sympathetic nerves[4]
Apocrine: adrenergic nerves[5]
Identifiers
LatinGlandula sudorifera[1][2]
MeSHD013545
TA98A16.0.00.029
TA27079
FMA59152
Anatomical terminology

Sweat glands (also known as sudoriferous or sudoriparous glands, from Latin sudor 'sweat'),[6][7] are small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat. There are two main types of sweat glands:

  • Eccrine sweat glands are distributed almost all over the body, though their density varies from region to region. Humans utilize eccrine sweat glands as a primary form of cooling.[8]
  • Apocrine sweat glands are larger, have a different secretion mechanism, and are mostly limited to the axilla (armpits) and perianal areas in humans.[8] Although apocrine glands contribute little to cooling in humans, they are the only effective sweat glands in hoofed animals such as the camel, donkey, horse, and cattle.[9][10][11]

Domestic animals[which?] have apocrine glands at the base of each hair follicle but eccrine glands only in foot pads and snout. Their apocrine glands, like those in humans, produce an odorless oily milky secretion evolved not to evaporate and cool but rather coat and stick to hair so odor-causing bacteria can grow on it.[12] Eccrine glands on their foot pads, like those on palms and soles of humans, did not evolve to cool either but rather increase friction and enhance grip.

Both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands contain myoepithelial cells (from Greek myo– "muscle"), specialized epithelial cells located between the gland cells and the underlying basal lamina. Myoepithelial cell contractions squeeze the gland and discharge the accumulated secretions. The secretory activities of the gland cells and the contractions of myoepithelial cells are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the circulating hormones.

Ceruminous glands, which produce ear wax, and mammary glands, which produce milk, and ciliary glands in the eyelids are considered to be modified sweat glands.[13][2]

Structure

Body of a sweat gland cut in various directions

Sweat glands are simple tubules consisting of a base rolled into a glomerulum and a duct that carries the sweat away.[14] The base, which forms the secretory coil, is set deep in the hypodermis, and the entire gland is surrounded by adipose tissue.[15][2][8] In apocrine glands, the secretory tubule is branched and single-layered, whereas it is unbranched, coiled, and double-layered in eccrine glands.[7][16] All sweat glands' secretory coils are wrapped in long, rod-like contractile myoepithelial cells.[16][17] In apocrine and eccrine glands, the diameter of the overall coil is around 800 and 500–700 microns respectively. The tubules themselves are also wider in apocrine glands: they have an inner diameter of 80–100 microns, versus the 30–40 micron diameters in eccrine glands.[18] Excretory ducts, which carry sweat away from the secretory coil, are lined by a double layer of cuboidal cells.[19]

Each sweat gland receives several nerve fibers that branch out into bands of one or more axons and encircle the individual tubules of the secretory coil. Capillaries are also interwoven among sweat tubules.[20]

Distribution

There are large individual variations in the number of active sweat glands among different people; though comparisons between different areas (ex. axillae versus groin) have the same directional changes.[21] According to Henry Gray's estimates, the palm has around 370 sweat glands per cm2; the back of the hand has 200 per cm2; the forehead has 175 per cm2; the breast, abdomen, and forearm have 155 per cm2; and the back and legs have 60–80 per cm2.[2]

In the finger pads, sweat glands are somewhat irregularly spaced on the epidermal ridges. There are no pores between the ridges, though sweat tends to spill into them.[21] The thick epidermis of the palms and soles causes the sweat glands to become spirally coiled.[2]

Animals

Mammals, with the exception of primates, have eccrine sweat glands only on the palms and soles. Apocrine glands cover the rest of the body, though they are not as effective as humans' in temperature regulation (with the exception of horses).[8] Prosimians have a 1:20 ratio of follicles with apocrine glands versus follicles without.[22] They have eccrine glands between hairs over most of their body (while humans have them between the hairs on their scalp.[9] The overall distribution of sweat glands varies among primates: the rhesus and patas monkeys have them on the chest; the squirrel monkey has them only on the palms and soles; and the stump-tailed macaque, Japanese monkey, and baboon have them over the entire body.[23]

Dogs and cats have apocrine glands that are specialized in both structure and function located at the eyelids (Moll's glands), ears (ceruminous glands), anal sac, prepuce vulva, and circumanal area.[24]

Types

Apocrine

Main article: Apocrine sweat gland

Apocrine sweat glands are found in the armpit, areola (around the nipples), perinum (between the anus and genitals), in the ear, and in the eyelids. The secretory portion is larger than that of eccrine glands (making them larger overall). Rather than opening directly onto the surface of the skin, apocrine glands secrete sweat into the pilary canal of the hair follicle.[8]

Before puberty, the apocrine sweat glands are inactive:[25] hormonal changes in puberty cause the glands to increase in size and begin functioning.[26] The substance secreted is thicker than eccrine sweat and provides nutrients for bacteria on the skin: the bacterias decomposition of sweat is what creates the acrid odor.[27] Apocrine sweat glands are most active in times of stress and sexual excitement.[28]

In mammals (including humans), apocrine sweat contains pheromone-like compounds to attract the opposite sex. Study of human sweat has revealed differences between men and women in the secretions and bacteria.[29]

Eccrine

Main article: Eccrine sweat glands

In humans, eccrine sweat glands are everywhere except the lips, ear canal, prepuce, glans penis, labia minora, and clitoris. They are ten times smaller than apocrine sweat glands, do not extend as deeply into the dermis, and excrete directly onto the surface of the skin.[8][5][30][4] The proportion of these eccrine glands decreases with age.[31]

The clear secretion produced by eccrine sweat glands is termed sweat or sensible perspiration. Sweat is mostly water, but it does contain some electrolytes, since it is derived from blood plasma, although less concentrated. It therefore contains mainly sodium chloride, but also other electrolytes. The presence of sodium chloride gives sweat a salty taste. The total volume of sweat produced depends on the number of functional glands and the size of the surface opening. The degree of secretory activity is regulated by neural and hormonal mechanisms (men produce greater volumes of sweat than women). When all of the eccrine sweat glands are working at maximum, the rate of perspiration for a human being may exceed three liters per hour,[32] and dangerous fluid and electrolyte losses can occur.

Eccrine glands have three primary functions:

  • Thermoregulation: sweat cools the surface of the skin and reduces body temperature.[33]
  • Excretion: eccrine sweat gland secretion can also provide a significant excretory route for water and electrolytes.[34]
  • Protection: eccrine sweat gland secretion aids in preserving the skin's acid mantle, which helps protect the skin from colonization from bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.[35]

Apoeccrine

Some human sweat glands cannot be classified as either apocrine or eccrine, having characteristics of both; such glands are termed apoeccrine.[36] They are larger than eccrine glands, but smaller than apocrine ones;[37] their secretory portion has a narrow portion similar to secretory coils in eccrine glands and an wide section reminiscent of apocrine glands.[38]

Apoeccrine are found in the armpits and perianal region and have ducts opening onto the skin surface.[39] Presumed to have developed in puberty from the eccrine glands,[40] apoeccrine ones can comprise up to 50% of all axillary glands. They secrete more sweat than both eccrine and apocrine glands, and thus play a large role in axillary sweating.[41] Apoeccrine glands are sensitive to cholinergic activity, though they can also be activated via adrenergic stimulation.[36] Like eccrine glands, they continuously secrete a thin, watery sweat.[41]

Others

Specialized sweat glands, including the ceruminous glands, mammary glands, the ciliary glands of the eyelids, and sweat glands of the nasal vestibulum, are modified apocrine glands.[42][5] Ceruminous glands are near the ear canals, and produce cerumen (earwax) that mixes with the oil secreted from the sebaceous glands.[43][42] Mammary glands use apocrine secretion to produce milk.[44]


Secretion

Sweat glands are used to regulate temperature and remove waste by secreting water, sodium salts, nitrogenous waste (such as urea) onto the skin surface.[34][45] The main electrolytes of sweat are sodium and chloride,[46] though the amount is small enough to make sweat hypotonic at the skin surface.[47] Eccrine sweat is clear, odorless, and is composed of 98–99% water; it also contains NaCl, fatty acids, lactic acid, citric acid, absorbic acid, urea, and uric acid. Its pH ranges from 4 to 6.8.[48] On the other hand, the apocrine sweat has a pH of 6 to 7.5; it contains water, proteins, carbohydrate waste material, lipids, and steroids. The sweat oily, cloudy, viscous, and originally odorless;[48] it gains odor upon decomposition by bacteria. Because both apocrine glands and sebaceous glands open into the hair follicle, apocrine sweat is mixed with sebum.[40]

Pathology

Tumors

Sweat gland tumors include:[49]

Adenolipomas are lipomas associated with eccrine sweat glands.[50]

As signs in other illnesses

Gallery

Transverse view of the skin with sweat glands highlighted
Transverse view of the eyelid with sweat glands highlighted
A human mammary gland

Notes

  1. ^ Federative International Committee on Anatomical Terminology (2008). Terminologia histologica: international terms for human cytology and histology. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 121. ISBN 9780781775373.
  2. ^ a b c d e Gray, Henry (1918). "The Organs of the Senses and the Common Integument". Anatomy of the Human Body (20th ed.). Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
  3. ^ a b Neas, John F. "Development of the Integumentary System". In Martini, Frederic H.; Timmons, Michael J.; Tallitsch, Bob (eds.). Embryology Atlas (4th ed.). Benjamin Cumings. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ a b Krstic 2004, p. 464.
  5. ^ a b c Krstic 2004, p. 466.
  6. ^ "sudoriferous". The New Oxford American Dictionary (2nd ed.).
  7. ^ a b "sweat gland". Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health (7th ed.). Saunders. 2003. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Kurosumi, Shibasaki & Ito 1984, p. 255.
  9. ^ a b Folk Jr & Semken Jr 1991, p. 181.
  10. ^ Bullard, R. W.; Dill, D. B.; Yousef, M. K. (1970). "Responses of the burro to desert heat stress". Journal of Applied Physiology. 29 (2): 159. PMID 5428889.
  11. ^ Sørensen & Prasad 1973, p. 173.
  12. ^ Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. "Cutaneous Apocrine Gland Tumors". The Merck Veterinary Manual.
  13. ^ Ackerman, A. Bernard; Böer, Almut; Bennin, Bruce; Gottlieb, Geoffrey J. (2005). "Embryologic, Histologic, and Anatomic Aspects". Histologic Diagnosis of Inflammatory Skin Diseases An Algorithmic Method Based on Pattern Analysis. ISBN 9781893357259.
  14. ^ Randall 2012, p. 255.
  15. ^ Caceci, Thomas. "Integument I: Skin". VM8054 Veterinary Histology Laboratory Exercises. Virginia–Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  16. ^ a b Kurosumi, Shibasaki & Ito 1984, p. 256.
  17. ^ Eroschenko 2008, pp. 222, 226, 228.
  18. ^ Wilke et al. 2007, pp. 173, 175.
  19. ^ Eroschenko 2008, p. 228.
  20. ^ Kennedy, W. R.; Wendelschafer-Crabb, G.; Brelje, T. C. (November 1994). "Innervation and vasculature of human sweat glands: an immunohistochemistry-laser scanning confocal fluorescence microscopy study". The Journal of neuroscience: the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 14 (11 pt. 2): 6825. ISSN 0270-6474.
  21. ^ a b Randall 2012.
  22. ^ Folk Jr & Semken Jr 1991, p. 182.
  23. ^ Folk Jr & Semken Jr 1991, p. 183.
  24. ^ Slatter, Douglas H., ed. (2003). Textbook of Small Animal Surgery. Vol. 2. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 253. ISBN 9780721686073.
  25. ^ "apocrine sweat gland". Mosby's Medical Dictionary (8th ed.). Elsevier. 2009, cited in "apocrine sweat gland". The Free Dictionary. Farlex. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
  26. ^ Braun-Falco, Otto; Plewig, Gerd; Wolff, Helmut H.; Burgdorf, Walter H. C. (1 January 2000). "Diseases of the Apocrine Sweat Glands". Dermatology. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 1083–1086. ISBN 978-3-642-97933-0.
  27. ^ Dorland's Medical Dictionary for Health Consumers. Saunders. 2007, {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) cited in "apocrine sweat gland". The Free Dictionary. Farlex. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
  28. ^ The American Heritage Medical Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2007, {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) cited in "apocrine sweat gland". The Free Dictionary. Farlex. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
  29. ^ Currie, Ariel; Coshnear, Hank; Quinn, Mila; Sand, Logan. "Human Pheromones". Macalaster College. Retrieved 6 June 2013.
  30. ^ Spearman, Richard Ian Campbell (1973). The Integument: A Textbook For Skin Biology. Biological Structure and Function Books. Vol. 3. CUP Archive. p. 135. ISBN 9780521200486.
  31. ^ Wilke et al. 2007, pp. 175–176.
  32. ^ Hickman, Jr., Cleveland P.; Roberts, Larry S.; Larson, Allan (April 2003). Integrated principles of zoology (12th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. p. 634. ISBN 9780072439403.
  33. ^ Wilke et al. 2007, p. 170.
  34. ^ a b Romich 2009, p. 203.
  35. ^ Marples, Mary J. (1965). The ecology of the human skin. ISBN 9780398012182. OL 5915977M.
  36. ^ a b Wilke et al. 2007, p. 171.
  37. ^ Cooper, Grant, ed. (2007). Therapeutic Uses of Botulinum Toxin. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press. p. 155. ISBN 9781597452472.
  38. ^ Böni, R. (2002). "Anatomy of Sweat Glands". Current Problems in Dermatology. Vol. 30. Basel: KARGER. pp. 1–9. ISBN 3-8055-7306-5. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  39. ^ Kreyden, Oliver Philip (2002). Hyperhidrosis and Botulinum Toxin in Dermatology: 18 Tables. Karger Publishers. p. 8. ISBN 3805573065. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ a b Wilke et al. 2007, p. 175. Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTEWilkeMartinTerstegenBiel2007175" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  41. ^ a b Wilke et al. 2007, p. 176.
  42. ^ a b McMurtrie, Hogin (28 November 2006). McMurtrie's Human Anatomy Coloring Book: A Systemic Approach to the Study of the Human Body: Thirteen Systems. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. p. 430. ISBN 9781402737886.
  43. ^ Romich 2009, p. 206.
  44. ^ Van Lommel, Alfons T. L. (2003). From Cells to Organs: A Histology Textbook and Atlas. Springer. pp. 199, 201. ISBN 9781402072574.
  45. ^ Eroschenko 2008, p. 215.
  46. ^ Frontera, Walter R. (2007). Clinical Sports Medicine: Medical Management and Rehabilitation. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 29. ISBN 1416024433.
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References

External links

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