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'''Maresin 1''' (MaR1) (i.e. 7''R'',14''S''-dihydroxy-4''Z'',8''E'',10''E'',12''Z'',16''Z'',19''Z''-docosahexaenoic acid) is a [[macrophage]]-derived mediator of inflammation resolution coined from '''Ma'''crophage mediator in '''res'''olving '''in'''flammation (maresin). It along with more recently defined maresins are [[12-lipoxygenase]]-derived metabolites of the[[omega-3 fatty acid]], [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA), that possess potent anti-inflammatory, pro-resolving, protective, and pro-healing properties similar to a variety of other members of the [[specialized proresolving mediators]] (SPM) class of [[polyunsaturated fatty acid]] (PUFA) metabolites. SPM are dihydroxy, trihydroxy, and [[epoxy]]-hydroxy metabolites of long chain PUFA made by certain [[dioxygenase]] enzymes viz., [[cyclooxygenase]]s and [[lipoxygenase]]s. In addition to the maresins, this class of mediators includes: the 15-lipoxygenase (i.e. [[ALOX15]] and/or possibly [[ALOX15B]])-derived [[Lipoxin]] A<sub>4</sub> and B<sub>4</sub> metabolites of the [[omega 6 fatty acid]], [[arachidonic acid]]; the [[cyclooxygenase 2]]-derived [[Resolvin]] E series metabolites of the omega 3 fatty acid, [[eicosapentaenoic acid]]; certain 15-lipoxygenase-derived [[Resolvin]] D series metabolites of DHA; certain other 15-lipoxygenase-derived [[protectin D1]] and related metabolites of DHA; and the more recently defined and therefore less fully studied 15-lipoxygenase-derived Resolvin D<sub>n-3DPA</sub> metabolites of the omega-3 fatty acid n-3 [[docosapentaenoic acid]] (n-3 DPA or clupanodonic acid), the cyclooxygenase 2-derived Resolvin T metabolites of this clupanodonic acid, and the 15-lipoxygenase-derived products of the N-acetylated fatty acid amide of the DHA metabolite, docosahexaenoyl ethanolamide (see [[resolvin]]s).<ref>Front Immunol. 2012 Apr 17;3:81. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00081. eCollection 2012.PMID 22566962</ref><ref>Eur J Pharmacol. 2015 Nov 10. pii: S0014-2999(15)30341-1. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.11.002. [Epub ahead of print]PMID 26546723</ref><ref>Eur J Pharmacol. 2015 Aug 5;760:49-63. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.083. Epub 2015 Apr 18. Review.PMID 25895638</ref><ref>Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2014 Oct 30;7(2):a016311. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a016311. Review.PMID 25359497</ref><ref>Infect Immun. 2015 Dec 14. pii: IAI.01131-15. [Epub ahead of print]PMID 26667839</ref>
'''Maresin 1''' (MaR1) (i.e. 7''R'',14''S''-dihydroxy-4''Z'',8''E'',10''E'',12''Z'',16''Z'',19''Z''-docosahexaenoic acid) is a [[macrophage]]-derived mediator of inflammation resolution coined from '''Ma'''crophage mediator in '''res'''olving '''in'''flammation (maresin). It along with more recently defined maresins are [[12-lipoxygenase]]-derived metabolites of the[[omega-3 fatty acid]], [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA), that possess potent anti-inflammatory, pro-resolving, protective, and pro-healing properties similar to a variety of other members of the [[specialized proresolving mediators]] (SPM) class of [[polyunsaturated fatty acid]] (PUFA) metabolites. SPM are dihydroxy, trihydroxy, and [[epoxy]]-hydroxy metabolites of long chain PUFA made by certain [[dioxygenase]] enzymes viz., [[cyclooxygenase]]s and [[lipoxygenase]]s. In addition to the maresins, this class of mediators includes: the 15-lipoxygenase (i.e. [[ALOX15]] and/or possibly [[ALOX15B]])-derived [[Lipoxin]] A<sub>4</sub> and B<sub>4</sub> metabolites of the [[omega 6 fatty acid]], [[arachidonic acid]]; the [[cyclooxygenase 2]]-derived [[Resolvin]] E series metabolites of the omega 3 fatty acid, [[eicosapentaenoic acid]]; certain 15-lipoxygenase-derived [[Resolvin]] D series metabolites of DHA; certain other 15-lipoxygenase-derived [[protectin D1]] and related metabolites of DHA; and the more recently defined and therefore less fully studied 15-lipoxygenase-derived Resolvin D<sub>n-3DPA</sub> metabolites of the omega-3 fatty acid n-3 [[docosapentaenoic acid]] (n-3 DPA or clupanodonic acid), the cyclooxygenase 2-derived Resolvin T metabolites of this clupanodonic acid, and the 15-lipoxygenase-derived products of the N-acetylated fatty acid amide of the DHA metabolite, docosahexaenoyl ethanolamide (see [[resolvin]]s).<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 22566962 | pmc = 3342038 | year = 2012 | author1 = Shinohara | first1 = M | title = Functional Metabolomics Reveals Novel Active Products in the DHA Metabolome | journal = Frontiers in Immunology | volume = 3 | pages = 81 | last2 = Mirakaj | first2 = V | last3 = Serhan | first3 = C. N. | doi = 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00081 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 26546723 | year = 2015 | author1 = Weylandt | first1 = K. H. | title = Docosapentaenoic acid derived metabolites and mediators - the new world of lipid mediator medicine in a nutshell | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | doi = 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.11.002 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 25895638 | year = 2015 | author1 = Romano | first1 = M | title = Lipoxins and aspirin-triggered lipoxins in resolution of inflammation | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 760 | pages = 49–63 | last2 = Cianci | first2 = E | last3 = Simiele | first3 = F | last4 = Recchiuti | first4 = A | doi = 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.083 }}</ref><ref name="pmid25359497">{{cite journal | pmid = 25359497 | year = 2014 | author1 = Serhan | first1 = C. N. | title = Lipid mediators in the resolution of inflammation | journal = Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = a016311 | last2 = Chiang | first2 = N | last3 = Dalli | first3 = J | last4 = Levy | first4 = B. D. | doi = 10.1101/cshperspect.a016311 }}</ref><ref name="pmid26667839">{{cite journal | pmid = 26667839 | pmc = 4771362 | year = 2015 | author1 = Wang | first1 = C. W. | title = Maresin 1 Biosynthesis and Proresolving Anti-infective Functions with Human-Localized Aggressive Periodontitis Leukocytes | journal = Infection and Immunity | volume = 84 | issue = 3 | pages = 658–65 | last2 = Colas | first2 = R. A. | last3 = Dalli | first3 = J | last4 = Arnardottir | first4 = H. H. | last5 = Nguyen | first5 = D | last6 = Hasturk | first6 = H | last7 = Chiang | first7 = N | last8 = Van Dyke | first8 = T. E. | last9 = Serhan | first9 = C. N. | doi = 10.1128/IAI.01131-15 }}</ref>


== Production ==
== Production ==
MaR1 was first defined as a product of DHA formed by cultures of human [[monocyte]]-derived macrophages.<ref>Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2014 Oct 30;7(2):a016311. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a016311. Review.PMID 25359497</ref> Studies implicate the following pathway in its formation: 12-lipoxygenase converts DHA to its 14-hydroxperoxy intermediate, 14(''S'')-hydroperoxy-4''Z'',7''Z'',10''Z'',12''E'',16''Z'',19''Z''-DHA (14-HpDHA); 14-HpDHA is converted enzymatically to its 13(''S''),14(''S'') [[epoxy]] derivative, termed 13(''S''),14(''S'')-epoxy-maresin which is then enzymatically hydrolyzed to Mar1. Byproducts of this metabolism include the reduction of 14-HpDHA to its hydroxyl counterpart, 14(''S'')-hydroxy-4''Z'',7''Z'',10''Z'',12''E'',16''Z'',19''Z''-DHA (14-HDPA); the [[5-lipoxygenase]]-dependent conversion of 14-HpDHA and/or 14-HDHA to 7(''S''),14(''S'')-dihydroxy-4''Z'',8''E'',10''Z'',12''E'',15''Z'',19''Z''-DHA; and the non-enzymatic hydrolysis of 14-HpDHA to 7(''S''/''R''),14(''S'')-DHA and 13(''S''/''R'')-DHA products.<ref>Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015 Apr;1851(4):397-413. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.006. Epub 2014 Aug 17. Review.PMID 25139562</ref> Concurrently, the macrophages also convert DHA to 13(''R''),14(''S'')-dihydroxy-4''Z'',7''Z'',9''E'',11''E'',16''Z'',19''Z''-docosapentaenoic acid, i.e. maresin 2 (MaR2).<ref>PLoS One. 2014 Jul 18;9(7):e102362. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102362. eCollection 2014.</ref> The measurement of 17-HDHA in tissues is used as a marker for the level of activation of the maresin-producing pathway.<ref>
MaR1 was first defined as a product of DHA formed by cultures of human [[monocyte]]-derived macrophages.<ref name="pmid25359497"/> Studies implicate the following pathway in its formation: 12-lipoxygenase converts DHA to its 14-hydroxperoxy intermediate, 14(''S'')-hydroperoxy-4''Z'',7''Z'',10''Z'',12''E'',16''Z'',19''Z''-DHA (14-HpDHA); 14-HpDHA is converted enzymatically to its 13(''S''),14(''S'') [[epoxy]] derivative, termed 13(''S''),14(''S'')-epoxy-maresin which is then enzymatically hydrolyzed to Mar1. Byproducts of this metabolism include the reduction of 14-HpDHA to its hydroxyl counterpart, 14(''S'')-hydroxy-4''Z'',7''Z'',10''Z'',12''E'',16''Z'',19''Z''-DHA (14-HDPA); the [[5-lipoxygenase]]-dependent conversion of 14-HpDHA and/or 14-HDHA to 7(''S''),14(''S'')-dihydroxy-4''Z'',8''E'',10''Z'',12''E'',15''Z'',19''Z''-DHA; and the non-enzymatic hydrolysis of 14-HpDHA to 7(''S''/''R''),14(''S'')-DHA and 13(''S''/''R'')-DHA products.<ref>Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015 Apr;1851(4):397-413. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.006. Epub 2014 Aug 17. Review.PMID 25139562</ref> Concurrently, the macrophages also convert DHA to 13(''R''),14(''S'')-dihydroxy-4''Z'',7''Z'',9''E'',11''E'',16''Z'',19''Z''-docosapentaenoic acid, i.e. maresin 2 (MaR2).<ref>PLoS One. 2014 Jul 18;9(7):e102362. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102362. eCollection 2014.</ref> The measurement of 17-HDHA in tissues is used as a marker for the level of activation of the maresin-producing pathway.<ref name="pmid26667839"/>
Infect Immun. 2015 Dec 14. pii: IAI.01131-15. [Epub ahead of print]PMID 26667839</ref>


== Sources ==
== Sources ==
Line 20: Line 19:


== Clinical relevancy ==
== Clinical relevancy ==
Studies find that the maresins inhibit certain pro-inflammatory functions in human neutrophils and macrophages in vitro, that MaR1 and Mar2 reduce the entry of blood neutrophils into the inflamed peritoneum in a mouse model, and that Mar1 promotes the resolution of allergic pulmonary inflammation in a mouse model as well as wound healing in planaria worm model. These studies have not yet translated to human physiology or pathology. It is noted that MaR1 is detectable in the synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref>Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013 Aug;13(4):632-40. doi: 10.1016/j.coph.2013.05.012. Epub 2013 Jun 6. Review.PMID 23747022</ref> It is also noted that macrophages derived by culturing the monocytes isolated from the blood of patients with [[Localized aggressive periodontitis]] have reduced levels of 12-lipoxygenase and MaR1 as well as reduced phagocytosis and killing of the periodontal pathogenic bacteria, [[Porphyromonas gingivalis]] and [[Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans]]; the latter functional defects were improved by treating the cells with MaR1.<ref>
Studies find that the maresins inhibit certain pro-inflammatory functions in human neutrophils and macrophages in vitro, that MaR1 and Mar2 reduce the entry of blood neutrophils into the inflamed peritoneum in a mouse model, and that Mar1 promotes the resolution of allergic pulmonary inflammation in a mouse model as well as wound healing in planaria worm model. These studies have not yet translated to human physiology or pathology. It is noted that MaR1 is detectable in the synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref>Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013 Aug;13(4):632-40. doi: 10.1016/j.coph.2013.05.012. Epub 2013 Jun 6. Review.PMID 23747022</ref> It is also noted that macrophages derived by culturing the monocytes isolated from the blood of patients with [[Localized aggressive periodontitis]] have reduced levels of 12-lipoxygenase and MaR1 as well as reduced phagocytosis and killing of the periodontal pathogenic bacteria, [[Porphyromonas gingivalis]] and [[Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans]]; the latter functional defects were improved by treating the cells with MaR1.<ref name="pmid26667839"/>
Infect Immun. 2015 Dec 14. pii: IAI.01131-15. [Epub ahead of print]PMID 26667839</ref>


Further studies are needed to determine if maresins play a functional role in resolving inflammation, promoting wound healing, or limiting neuropathic pain and/or if maresins or their metabolism-resisent analogs are clinically useful in treating the latter conditions.
Further studies are needed to determine if maresins play a functional role in resolving inflammation, promoting wound healing, or limiting neuropathic pain and/or if maresins or their metabolism-resisent analogs are clinically useful in treating the latter conditions.

Revision as of 19:32, 21 June 2016

Maresin 1 (MaR1) (i.e. 7R,14S-dihydroxy-4Z,8E,10E,12Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid) is a macrophage-derived mediator of inflammation resolution coined from Macrophage mediator in resolving inflammation (maresin). It along with more recently defined maresins are 12-lipoxygenase-derived metabolites of theomega-3 fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), that possess potent anti-inflammatory, pro-resolving, protective, and pro-healing properties similar to a variety of other members of the specialized proresolving mediators (SPM) class of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) metabolites. SPM are dihydroxy, trihydroxy, and epoxy-hydroxy metabolites of long chain PUFA made by certain dioxygenase enzymes viz., cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases. In addition to the maresins, this class of mediators includes: the 15-lipoxygenase (i.e. ALOX15 and/or possibly ALOX15B)-derived Lipoxin A4 and B4 metabolites of the omega 6 fatty acid, arachidonic acid; the cyclooxygenase 2-derived Resolvin E series metabolites of the omega 3 fatty acid, eicosapentaenoic acid; certain 15-lipoxygenase-derived Resolvin D series metabolites of DHA; certain other 15-lipoxygenase-derived protectin D1 and related metabolites of DHA; and the more recently defined and therefore less fully studied 15-lipoxygenase-derived Resolvin Dn-3DPA metabolites of the omega-3 fatty acid n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (n-3 DPA or clupanodonic acid), the cyclooxygenase 2-derived Resolvin T metabolites of this clupanodonic acid, and the 15-lipoxygenase-derived products of the N-acetylated fatty acid amide of the DHA metabolite, docosahexaenoyl ethanolamide (see resolvins).[1][2][3][4][5]

Production

MaR1 was first defined as a product of DHA formed by cultures of human monocyte-derived macrophages.[4] Studies implicate the following pathway in its formation: 12-lipoxygenase converts DHA to its 14-hydroxperoxy intermediate, 14(S)-hydroperoxy-4Z,7Z,10Z,12E,16Z,19Z-DHA (14-HpDHA); 14-HpDHA is converted enzymatically to its 13(S),14(S) epoxy derivative, termed 13(S),14(S)-epoxy-maresin which is then enzymatically hydrolyzed to Mar1. Byproducts of this metabolism include the reduction of 14-HpDHA to its hydroxyl counterpart, 14(S)-hydroxy-4Z,7Z,10Z,12E,16Z,19Z-DHA (14-HDPA); the 5-lipoxygenase-dependent conversion of 14-HpDHA and/or 14-HDHA to 7(S),14(S)-dihydroxy-4Z,8E,10Z,12E,15Z,19Z-DHA; and the non-enzymatic hydrolysis of 14-HpDHA to 7(S/R),14(S)-DHA and 13(S/R)-DHA products.[6] Concurrently, the macrophages also convert DHA to 13(R),14(S)-dihydroxy-4Z,7Z,9E,11E,16Z,19Z-docosapentaenoic acid, i.e. maresin 2 (MaR2).[7] The measurement of 17-HDHA in tissues is used as a marker for the level of activation of the maresin-producing pathway.[5]

Sources

The maresans have been detected primarily as products made by monocyte-macrophage cells types. MaR1 has been identified in the synovial fluid taken from the joins of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.[8] In a murine model of acute respiratory distress syndrome, MaR1 production was detected; its generation appeared to reflect an interaction between blood platelets and neutrophils wherein 12-lipoxygenase-rich platelets generated 13(S),14(S)-epoxy-maresin which was then passed to neutrophils which hydrolyzed the epoxy maresin to MaR1.[9] Planaria worms metabolize DHA to Mar1 during the healing phase of experimentally induced tissue injury.[10]

Activities

Studies suggest that Maresins are involved in resolving inflammatory and allergic reactions, in wound healing, and in abating neuropathic pain.

Mar1 enhances the uptake (i.e. stimulates the efferocytosis) of apoptotic human neutrophils by human macrophages, stimulates macrophagephagocytosis, and limits the infiltration of neutrophils into the inflamed peritoneum of mice.[11][12] In a murine model of acute respiratory distress syndrome, MaR1 generation was detected in a temporally regulated manner with early MaR1 production was dependent on platelet-neutrophil interactions; intravascular MaR1 was organ-protective, leading to decreased lung neutrophils, edema, tissue hypoxia, and prophlogistic mediators.[13]

In a murine model of a self-limiting pulmonary allergic reaction, MaR1 reduced lung inflammation. It appeared to act at least in part by augmenting the generation of regulatory T cells which interacted with Group 2 innate lymphoid cells (i.e. Helper T cell lymphocytes, see Innate lymphoid cell#GroupILC) to markedly suppress the production of two cytokines, Interleukin-5 and Interleukin-13, implicated in mediating allergic reactions.[14][15] MaR1 accelerated tissue regeneration in experimentally injured planaria worms. In particular, it increasing the rate of head reappearance in beheaded worms.[16] And, MaR1 reduced neuropathic pain in a mouse model by inhibiting a neuron ion channel, TRPV1, and thereby blocking capsaicin-induced inward currents and neuron excitation.[17][18]

Mar2 possess at least some of the activities ascribed to MaR1. It enhances human macrophage phagocytosis of particles and efferocytosis of apoptotic human neutrophils and reduces neutrophil infiltration into the inflamed peritoneum of mice.[19] Its potencies ins producing these responses are similar to those of MaR1.

13(S),14(S)-epoxy-maresin inhibits the production of the arachidonic acid metabolite, Leukotriene B4 (LTB4), by directly inactivating the enzyme, Leukotriene-A4 hydrolase, which converts the LTB4 precursor, Leukotriene A4, to LTB4; this effect may contribute to the resolution of inflammatory responses by reducing the production of the proinflammatory mediator, LTB4.[20]

Clinical relevancy

Studies find that the maresins inhibit certain pro-inflammatory functions in human neutrophils and macrophages in vitro, that MaR1 and Mar2 reduce the entry of blood neutrophils into the inflamed peritoneum in a mouse model, and that Mar1 promotes the resolution of allergic pulmonary inflammation in a mouse model as well as wound healing in planaria worm model. These studies have not yet translated to human physiology or pathology. It is noted that MaR1 is detectable in the synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.[21] It is also noted that macrophages derived by culturing the monocytes isolated from the blood of patients with Localized aggressive periodontitis have reduced levels of 12-lipoxygenase and MaR1 as well as reduced phagocytosis and killing of the periodontal pathogenic bacteria, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans; the latter functional defects were improved by treating the cells with MaR1.[5]

Further studies are needed to determine if maresins play a functional role in resolving inflammation, promoting wound healing, or limiting neuropathic pain and/or if maresins or their metabolism-resisent analogs are clinically useful in treating the latter conditions.

References

  1. ^ Shinohara, M; Mirakaj, V; Serhan, C. N. (2012). "Functional Metabolomics Reveals Novel Active Products in the DHA Metabolome". Frontiers in Immunology. 3: 81. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2012.00081. PMC 3342038. PMID 22566962.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  2. ^ Weylandt, K. H. (2015). "Docosapentaenoic acid derived metabolites and mediators - the new world of lipid mediator medicine in a nutshell". European Journal of Pharmacology. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.11.002. PMID 26546723.
  3. ^ Romano, M; Cianci, E; Simiele, F; Recchiuti, A (2015). "Lipoxins and aspirin-triggered lipoxins in resolution of inflammation". European Journal of Pharmacology. 760: 49–63. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.083. PMID 25895638.
  4. ^ a b Serhan, C. N.; Chiang, N; Dalli, J; Levy, B. D. (2014). "Lipid mediators in the resolution of inflammation". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 7 (2): a016311. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a016311. PMID 25359497.
  5. ^ a b c Wang, C. W.; Colas, R. A.; Dalli, J; Arnardottir, H. H.; Nguyen, D; Hasturk, H; Chiang, N; Van Dyke, T. E.; Serhan, C. N. (2015). "Maresin 1 Biosynthesis and Proresolving Anti-infective Functions with Human-Localized Aggressive Periodontitis Leukocytes". Infection and Immunity. 84 (3): 658–65. doi:10.1128/IAI.01131-15. PMC 4771362. PMID 26667839.
  6. ^ Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015 Apr;1851(4):397-413. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.006. Epub 2014 Aug 17. Review.PMID 25139562
  7. ^ PLoS One. 2014 Jul 18;9(7):e102362. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102362. eCollection 2014.
  8. ^ Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013 Aug;13(4):632-40. doi: 10.1016/j.coph.2013.05.012. Epub 2013 Jun 6. Review.PMID 23747022
  9. ^ Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014 Nov 18;111(46):16526-31. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1407123111. Epub 2014 Nov 4.PMID 25369934
  10. ^ J Immunol. 2015 Feb 1;194(3):863-7. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402534. Epub 2014 Dec 24.PMID 25539814
  11. ^ Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013 Aug;13(4):632-40. doi: 0.1016/j.coph.2013.05.012. Epub 2013 Jun 6. Review.PMID 23747022
  12. ^ Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015 Apr;1851(4):397-413. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.006. Epub 2014 Aug 17. Review.PMID 25139562
  13. ^ Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2014 Nov 18;111(46):16526-31. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1407123111. Epub 2014 Nov 4.PMID 25369934
  14. ^ J Immunol. 2015 Feb 1;194(3):863-7. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1402534. Epub 2014 Dec 24.
  15. ^ Eur J Pharmacol. 2015 Nov 3. pii: S0014-2999(15)30340-X. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.11.001. [Epub ahead of print]
  16. ^ FASEB J. 2012 Apr;26(4):1755-65. doi: 10.1096/fj.11-201442. Epub 2012 Jan 17.PMID 22253477
  17. ^ Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013 Aug;13(4):632-40. doi: 0.1016/j.coph.2013.05.012. Epub 2013 Jun 6. Review.PMID 23747022
  18. ^ Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015 Apr;1851(4):397-413. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.006. Epub 2014 Aug 17. Review.PMID 25139562
  19. ^ PLoS One. 2014 Jul 18;9(7):e102362. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102362. eCollection 2014.PMID 25036362
  20. ^ Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015 Apr;1851(4):397-413. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.006. Epub 2014 Aug 17. Review.PMID 25139562
  21. ^ Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013 Aug;13(4):632-40. doi: 10.1016/j.coph.2013.05.012. Epub 2013 Jun 6. Review.PMID 23747022
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