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{{short description|Inflammation of a nerve or the general peripheral nervous system}} |
{{short description|Inflammation of a nerve or the general peripheral nervous system}} |
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'''Neuritis''' ({{IPAc-en|nj|ʊəˈr|aɪ|t|ɪ|s}}) is inflammation of a [[nerve]]<ref>{{DorlandsDict|six/000071661|neuritis}}</ref> or the general [[inflammation]] of the [[peripheral nervous system]]. Inflammation, and frequently concomitant [[Demyelinating disease|demyelination]]<ref name=":4">{{ |
'''Neuritis''' ({{IPAc-en|nj|ʊəˈr|aɪ|t|ɪ|s}}) is inflammation of a [[nerve]]<ref>{{DorlandsDict|six/000071661|neuritis}}</ref> or the general [[inflammation]] of the [[peripheral nervous system]]. Inflammation, and frequently concomitant [[Demyelinating disease|demyelination]],<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pau D, Al Zubidi N, Yalamanchili S, Plant GT, Lee AG | title = Optic neuritis | journal = Eye | volume = 25 | issue = 7 | pages = 833–42 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21527960 | pmc = 3178158 | doi = 10.1038/eye.2011.81 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chowdhury D, Arora A | title = Axonal Guillain-Barré syndrome: a critical review | journal = Acta Neurologica Scandinavica | volume = 103 | issue = 5 | pages = 267–77 | date = May 2001 | pmid = 11328201 | doi = 10.1034/j.1600-0404.2001.103005267.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Oaklander AL, Lunn MP, Hughes RA, van Schaik IN, Frost C, Chalk CH | title = Treatments for chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP): an overview of systematic reviews | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 1 | pages = CD010369 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 28084646 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.cd010369 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons, Ltd }}</ref> cause impaired conduction of neural signals and leads to aberrant nerve function. Neuritis is often conflated with [[Peripheral neuropathy|neuropathy]], a broad term describing any disease process which affects the peripheral nervous system. However, neuropathies may be due to either inflammatory<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Neurological disorders : course and treatment|date=2003|publisher=Academic Press|others=Brandt, Thomas, 1943-|isbn=978-0-12-125831-3|edition=2nd|location=Amsterdam|pages=|chapter=CHAPTER 88: INFLAMMATORY AND INFECTIOUS POLYNEUROPATHY|oclc=162571014}}</ref> or non-inflammatory causes,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Neurological disorders : course and treatment|date=2003|publisher=Academic Press|others=Brandt, Thomas, 1943-|isbn=978-0-12-125831-3|edition=2nd|location=Amsterdam|pages=|chapter=CHAPTER 89: Noninflammatory Polyneuropathy|oclc=162571014}}</ref> and the term encompasses any form of damage, degeneration, or dysfunction, while neuritis refers specifically to the inflammatory process. |
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As inflammation is a common reaction to biological insult, many conditions may present with features of neuritis. Common causes include autoimmune diseases, such as [[multiple sclerosis]]; infection, either bacterial, such as [[leprosy]], or viral, such as [[Varicella zoster virus|varicella zoster]]; post-infectious immune reactions, such as [[Guillain–Barré syndrome|Guillain-Barré syndrome]]; or a response to physical injury, as frequently seen in [[Sciatica|siatica]]<ref>{{ |
As inflammation is a common reaction to biological insult, many conditions may present with features of neuritis. Common causes include autoimmune diseases, such as [[multiple sclerosis]]; infection, either bacterial, such as [[leprosy]], or viral, such as [[Varicella zoster virus|varicella zoster]]; post-infectious immune reactions, such as [[Guillain–Barré syndrome|Guillain-Barré syndrome]]; or a response to physical injury, as frequently seen in [[Sciatica|siatica]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Martini R, Willison H | title = Neuroinflammation in the peripheral nerve: Cause, modulator, or bystander in peripheral neuropathies? | journal = Glia | volume = 64 | issue = 4 | pages = 475–86 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 26250643 | pmc = 4832258 | doi = 10.1002/glia.22899 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Baloh, Robert W. (Robert William), 1942-|title=Sciatica and chronic pain : past, present and future|date=14 August 2018|isbn=978-3-319-93904-9|location=Cham, Switzerland|oclc=1048610895}}</ref> |
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While any nerve in the body may undergo inflammation<ref> |
While any nerve in the body may undergo inflammation,<ref>{{cite book | title = Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health | edition = Seventh | date = 2003 }}</ref> specific etiologies may preferentially affect specific nerves.<ref>{{Citation|last=Al Khalili|first=Yasir|title=Brachial Neuritis|date=2020|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499842/|work=StatPearls|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=29763017|access-date=2020-05-11|last2=Jain|first2=Sameer|last3=DeCastro|first3=Alexei}}</ref> The nature of symptoms depends on the specific nerves involved, neuritis in a sensory nerve may cause [[pain]], [[paresthesia]] (pins-and-needles), [[hypoesthesia]] (numbness), and [[anesthesia]], and neuritis in a motor nerve may cause [[paresis]] (weakness), [[Fasciculation|fasiculation]], [[paralysis]], or [[Muscle atrophy|muscle wasting]]. |
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Treatment of neuritis centers around removing or managing any inciting cause of inflammation, followed by [[Symptomatic treatment|supportive care]] and [[anti-inflammatory]] or [[Immunotherapy|immune modulatory]] treatments as well as symptomatic management. |
Treatment of neuritis centers around removing or managing any inciting cause of inflammation, followed by [[Symptomatic treatment|supportive care]] and [[anti-inflammatory]] or [[Immunotherapy|immune modulatory]] treatments as well as symptomatic management. |
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==Causes== |
==Causes== |
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| ⚫ | Both active infections and post-infectious autoimmune processes cause neuritis<ref>{{ |
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| ⚫ | Both active infections and post-infectious autoimmune processes cause neuritis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hehir MK, Logigian EL | title = Infectious neuropathies | journal = Continuum | volume = 20 | issue = 5 Peripheral Nervous System Disorders | pages = 1274–92 | date = October 2014 | pmid = 25299282 | doi = 10.1212/01.CON.0000455881.83803.a9 }}</ref> Rapid identification of an infectious cause of neuritis dictates treatment approach and often has a much more positive long term prognosis than other etiologies.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=Neurological disorders : course and treatment|date=2003|publisher=Academic Press|others=Brandt, Thomas, 1943-|isbn=978-0-12-125831-3|edition=2nd|location=Amsterdam|pages=|chapter=Chapter 88: Inflammatory and Infectious Polyneuropathy |oclc=162571014}}</ref> Bacterial, viral, and spirochete infections all have been associated with inflammatory neural responses. Some of the bacterial agents most associated with neuritis are [[leprosy]], [[lyme disease]], and [[diphtheria]]. Viral causes of neuritis include [[herpes simplex virus]], [[varicella zoster virus]], and [[HIV]]. |
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| ⚫ | [[Leprosy]] is frequently characterized by direct neural infection by the causative organism, [[mycobacterium leprae]]<ref>{{Cite book|date=2017|title=IAL Textbook of Leprosy|doi=10.5005/jp/books/12958|isbn=9789351529910}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[Leprosy]] is frequently characterized by direct neural infection by the causative organism, [[mycobacterium leprae]].<ref>{{Cite book|date=2017|title=IAL Textbook of Leprosy|doi=10.5005/jp/books/12958|isbn=9789351529910}}</ref> Leprosy presents with a heterogeneous clinical picture dictated by bacterial titer and inborn host resistance.<ref name=":02" /> [[Tuberculoid leprosy]], seen in cases where host immunity is high, is not commonly associated with neuritis. It presents with a low number of anesthetic, anhydrotic skin plaques with few bacilli, the result of a granulomatous process which destroys cutaneous nerves.<ref name="Kershen_2007">{{cite book |last=Kershen|first=Joshua |last2=Sabin|first2=Thomas | name-list-format = vanc |title= Infective Neuropathies |date=2007|work=Neurology and Clinical Neuroscience|pages=1127–1140|publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-323-03354-1.50088-2|isbn=978-0-323-03354-1 }}</ref> [[Lepromatous leprosy]], seen when the host lacks resistance to the organism, presents with widespread skin lesions and palpably enlarged nerves.<ref name="Kershen_2007" /> Disease involvement in this form of leprosy characteristically progresses from cooler regions of the body, such as the tip of the nose and ear lobes, towards warmer regions of the body eventually resulting in extensive loss of sensation and destructive skin lesions. Rapid treatment is a critical component of care in patients affected with leprosy, delayed care results in permanent loss of sensation and tissue damage which requires an extensive treatment regime.<ref name="Saporta_2015">{{cite book |last=Saporta|first=Mario A. | name-list-format = vanc |title=Peripheral Neuropathies|date=2015|work=Neurobiology of Brain Disorders|pages=167–188|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-398270-4.00012-4|isbn=978-0-12-398270-4 |last2=Shy|first2=Michael E.}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[Lyme disease]], caused by the spirochete [[Borrelia burgdorferi]], is a tick-borne illness with both peripheral and central neurological manifestations. The first stage of Lyme disease frequently presents with a [[pathognomonic]] "bull's eye" rash, [[erythema migrans]], as well as fever, malaise, and arthralgias. Roughly 15% of untreated patients will then develop neurological manifestations, classically characterized by cranial neuropathy, [[Radiculopathy|radiculoneuritis]], and a lymphocytic [[meningitis]]<ref name=" |
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| ⚫ | [[Lyme disease]], caused by the spirochete [[Borrelia burgdorferi]], is a tick-borne illness with both peripheral and central neurological manifestations. The first stage of Lyme disease frequently presents with a [[pathognomonic]] "bull's eye" rash, [[erythema migrans]], as well as fever, malaise, and arthralgias. Roughly 15% of untreated patients will then develop neurological manifestations, classically characterized by cranial neuropathy, [[Radiculopathy|radiculoneuritis]], and a lymphocytic [[meningitis]].<ref name="Saporta_2015" /> The nerve inflammation seen in neurological lyme disease is associated with a lymphoctyic infiltrate without evidence of direct infection of peripheral nerves.<ref name="Kershen_2007" /> While commonly self-limiting, treatment with antibiotics may hasten resolution of symptoms.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cunha, Burke A., editor.|title=Tickborne infectious diseases : diagnosis and management|isbn=978-0-8247-4648-3|oclc=892787077}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Halperin JJ | title = Diagnosis and management of Lyme neuroborreliosis | journal = Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–11 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 29278020 | doi = 10.1080/14787210.2018.1417836 }}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[Diphtheria|Diptheria]], a once common childhood respiratory infection, produces a neurotoxin which can result in a biphasic neuropathy<ref name=" |
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| ⚫ | [[Diphtheria|Diptheria]], a once common childhood respiratory infection, produces a neurotoxin which can result in a biphasic neuropathy.<ref name="Saporta_2015" /> This neuropathy begins with paralysis and numbness of the [[soft palate]] and pharynx as well as [[Bulbar palsy|bulbar]] weakness several days to weeks after the initial upper respiratory infection, followed by an ascending flaccid paralysis caused by an acute inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy after several more weeks.<ref name="Kershen_2007" /> While antibiotics are effective at eradicating the bacterium, neurological sequelae of infection must be treated with diptheria antitoxin.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sharma NC, Efstratiou A, Mokrousov I, Mutreja A, Das B, Ramamurthy T | title = Diphtheria | journal = Nature Reviews. Disease Primers | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 81 | date = December 2019 | pmid = 31804499 | doi = 10.1038/s41572-019-0131-y }}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[Herpes simplex virus]] is a common virus which latently resides in neuronal ganglia between active infections. HSV-1 commonly resides in cranial nerve ganglia, particularly the [[Trigeminal ganglion|trigeminal ganglia]], and may cause painful [[Neuralgia|neuralgias]] during active periods. It has also been associated with [[Bell's palsy]], and [[vestibular neuritis]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abai, Babak, editor.|title=StatPearls|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|chapter=Vestibular Neuronitis (Labyrinthitis)|oclc=1021256616}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[Herpes simplex virus]] is a common virus which latently resides in neuronal ganglia between active infections. HSV-1 commonly resides in cranial nerve ganglia, particularly the [[Trigeminal ganglion|trigeminal ganglia]], and may cause painful [[Neuralgia|neuralgias]] during active periods. It has also been associated with [[Bell's palsy]], and [[vestibular neuritis]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abai, Babak, editor.|title=StatPearls|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|chapter=Vestibular Neuronitis (Labyrinthitis)|oclc=1021256616}}</ref> HSV-2 frequently lies within lumbosacral ganglia and is associated with radiculopathies during active infection.<ref name="Saporta_2015" /> Herpes reactivation is often treated with acyclovir, although evidence for its efficacy in controlling peripheral neurological manifestation of disease remain poor.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor|first=Michael|title=Acyclovir|date=2020|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK542180/|work=StatPearls|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=31194337|last2=Gerriets|first2=Valerie}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[Varicella zoster virus]], the cause of chickenpox, can be found dormant throughout the nervous system after an initial infection. Reactivation of the virus cause [[Shingles|herpes zoster]], commonly known as shingles, is seen in a dematomal or cranial nerve distribution corresponding to the ganglion in which the latent virus resided. After the herpetic rash resolves, an additional period of postherpatic neuralgia may persist for weeks to months<ref name=" |
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| ⚫ | [[Varicella zoster virus]], the cause of chickenpox, can be found dormant throughout the nervous system after an initial infection. Reactivation of the virus cause [[Shingles|herpes zoster]], commonly known as shingles, is seen in a dematomal or cranial nerve distribution corresponding to the ganglion in which the latent virus resided. After the herpetic rash resolves, an additional period of postherpatic neuralgia may persist for weeks to months.<ref name="Kershen_2007" /> Antiviral medications, including acyclovir, are effective at controlling viral reactivation. Management of ensuing neuropathic often requires further management possibly including [[gabapentin]], [[amitriptyline]], [[carbamazepine]], or topical [[lidocaine]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Johnson RW, Alvarez-Pasquin MJ, Bijl M, Franco E, Gaillat J, Clara JG, Labetoulle M, Michel JP, Naldi L, Sanmarti LS, Weinke T | display-authors = 6 | title = Herpes zoster epidemiology, management, and disease and economic burden in Europe: a multidisciplinary perspective | journal = Therapeutic Advances in Vaccines | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 109–20 | date = July 2015 | pmid = 26478818 | pmc = 4591524 | doi = 10.1177/2051013615599151 }}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[HIV]] is associated with a broad range of neurological manifestations, both during acute infection and during the progression of the disease. During acute infection both direct peripheral nervous involvement, most commonly bilateral facial palsy, and an acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy ([[Guillain–Barré syndrome|Guillian-Barré syndrome]]) have been reported. As the disease process progresses, [[diffuse infiltrative lymphocytosis syndrome]] may include a lymphocytic inflammation of peripheral nerves which results in a painful symmetric polyneuropathy. Immune dysfunction over the course of infection may also result in [[chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy]] or vasculitis induced [[mononeuritis multiplex]]<ref>{{ |
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| ⚫ | [[HIV]] is associated with a broad range of neurological manifestations, both during acute infection and during the progression of the disease. During acute infection both direct peripheral nervous involvement, most commonly bilateral facial palsy, and an acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy ([[Guillain–Barré syndrome|Guillian-Barré syndrome]]) have been reported. As the disease process progresses, [[diffuse infiltrative lymphocytosis syndrome]] may include a lymphocytic inflammation of peripheral nerves which results in a painful symmetric polyneuropathy. Immune dysfunction over the course of infection may also result in [[chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy]] or vasculitis induced [[mononeuritis multiplex]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gabbai AA, Castelo A, Oliveira AS | title = HIV peripheral neuropathy | journal = Handbook of Clinical Neurology | volume = 115 | pages = 515–29 | date = 2013 | pmid = 23931799 | doi = 10.1016/b978-0-444-52902-2.00029-1 | publisher = Elsevier | isbn = 978-0-444-52902-2 }}</ref> Identifying HIV-associated neuropathy is confounded by the neurotoxic nature of many of the antiretrovirals used to manage the disease, as a general rule HIV-associated neuropathy will improve with continued antiretroviral therapy while medicated associated neuropathy will worsen.<ref name="Kershen_2007" /> |
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| ⚫ | [[Multiple sclerosis]] and [[Neuromyelitis optica]] are autoimmune diseases which both frequently present with [[optic neuritis]], an inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy of the [[optic nerve]]<ref>{{ |
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| ⚫ | [[Multiple sclerosis]] and [[Neuromyelitis optica]] are autoimmune diseases which both frequently present with [[optic neuritis]], an inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy of the [[optic nerve]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pau D, Al Zubidi N, Yalamanchili S, Plant GT, Lee AG | title = Optic neuritis | journal = Eye | volume = 25 | issue = 7 | pages = 833–42 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21527960 | pmc = 3178158 | doi = 10.1038/eye.2011.81 }}</ref> Multiple sclerosis is a disease of unknown etiology which is characterized by neurological lesions "disseminated in time and space".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abai, Babak, editor.|title=StatPearls|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=|chapter=Multiple Sclerosis|oclc=1021256616}}</ref> Neuromyelitis optica, once considered a subtype of multiple sclerosis, is characterized by neuromyelitis optica IgG antibodies which selectively bind to aquaporin-4.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roemer SF, Parisi JE, Lennon VA, Benarroch EE, Lassmann H, Bruck W, Mandler RN, Weinshenker BG, Pittock SJ, Wingerchuk DM, Lucchinetti CF | display-authors = 6 | title = Pattern-specific loss of aquaporin-4 immunoreactivity distinguishes neuromyelitis optica from multiple sclerosis | journal = Brain | volume = 130 | issue = Pt 5 | pages = 1194–205 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17282996 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awl371 }}</ref> Optic neuritis is associated monocular vision loss, often initially characterized by a defect in color perception (dyschromatopsia) followed by blurring of vision and loss of acuity. Optic neuritis is also commonly associated with periocular pain, phosphenes, and other visual disturbances. Treatment of acute optic neuritis involves corticosteroids, plasmapheresis, and IV immunoglobulins in additions to disease modifying immunotherapies to manage the underlying neuropathology associated with the acute inflammatory episode.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=Optic neuritis|work=SpringerReference|publisher=Springer-Verlag|doi=10.1007/springerreference_39307|title=Springer ''Reference''|year=2011}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[Guillain–Barré syndrome|Guillian-Barré Syndrome]] is a class of acute polyneuropathies which present with flaccid paralysis, they include acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP), [[acute motor axonal neuropathy]] (AMAN), acute ataxia, and [[Fisher syndrome|Miller-Fisher syndrome]]<ref name=" |
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| ⚫ | [[Guillain–Barré syndrome|Guillian-Barré Syndrome]] is a class of acute polyneuropathies which present with flaccid paralysis, they include acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP), [[acute motor axonal neuropathy]] (AMAN), acute ataxia, and [[Fisher syndrome|Miller-Fisher syndrome]].<ref name="Kershen_2007" /> These disorders are post-infectious syndromes in which symptoms often present several weeks after the resolution of an acute infection, commonly an upper respiratory infection or gastroeneteritis, due to molecular mimicry between peripheral nerve and microbial antigens.<ref name="Saporta_2015" /> AIDP, which represents the vast majority of Guillian-Barré cases, classically presents with an acute onset, ascending paralysis which begins in the distal extremities. This paralysis may progress rapidly over the course of several days and lead to ventilatory failure requiring intubation. Symptoms will commonly spontaneously resolve after several weeks. Thus, management of Guillian-Barré relies upon supportive care to manage ventilation and feeding until symptoms remit. Adjunctive immunomodulation with plasmapharesis and IV immunoglobulin have both been shown to increase the rate of recovery.<ref name=":52">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leonhard SE, Mandarakas MR, Gondim FA, Bateman K, Ferreira ML, Cornblath DR, van Doorn PA, Dourado ME, Hughes RA, Islam B, Kusunoki S, Pardo CA, Reisin R, Sejvar JJ, Shahrizaila N, Soares C, Umapathi T, Wang Y, Yiu EM, Willison HJ, Jacobs BC | display-authors = 6 | title = Diagnosis and management of Guillain-Barré syndrome in ten steps | journal = Nature Reviews. Neurology | volume = 15 | issue = 11 | pages = 671–683 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 31541214 | pmc = 6821638 | doi = 10.1038/s41582-019-0250-9 }}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | [[Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy|Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy]] (CIDP) is an inflammatory neuropathy, which while pathophysiologically similar to AIDP, progresses over a much more protracted time scale<ref name=" |
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| ⚫ | [[Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy|Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy]] (CIDP) is an inflammatory neuropathy, which while pathophysiologically similar to AIDP, progresses over a much more protracted time scale.<ref name="Saporta_2015" /> CIDP has an insidious onset and progresses over months to years, but is otherwise similar to AIDP in serological, CSF, and electrodiagnostic studies. Treatment consists of corticosteroids, with IV immunoglobulon or plasmapheresis as a bridge treatment until symptoms respond to corticosteroids.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lewis RA | title = Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy | journal = Current Opinion in Neurology | volume = 30 | issue = 5 | pages = 508–512 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 28763304 | doi = 10.1097/WCO.0000000000000481 }}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | Several different malignancies, particularly [[Small-cell carcinoma|small-cell lung cancer]] and [[Hodgkin lymphoma]], are associated with a [[Paraneoplastic syndrome|paraneoplastic]] neuritis. This carcinomatous polyneuropathy is associated with the presence of antibodies against onconeural antigen, Hu, Yo, amphiphysin, or CV2/CRMP5, which recognize and bind to both tumor cells and peripheral nervous system neurons<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Lindsay, Kenneth W.|title=Neurology and neurosurgery illustrated.|date=2011|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|isbn=978-0-443-06957-4|location=|pages=429–487|chapter=SECTION IV - LOCALISED NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE AND ITS MANAGEMENT C. PERIPHERAL NERVE AND MUSCLE|oclc=972843900}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | Several different malignancies, particularly [[Small-cell carcinoma|small-cell lung cancer]] and [[Hodgkin lymphoma]], are associated with a [[Paraneoplastic syndrome|paraneoplastic]] neuritis. This carcinomatous polyneuropathy is associated with the presence of antibodies against onconeural antigen, Hu, Yo, amphiphysin, or CV2/CRMP5, which recognize and bind to both tumor cells and peripheral nervous system neurons.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Lindsay, Kenneth W.|title=Neurology and neurosurgery illustrated.|date=2011|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|isbn=978-0-443-06957-4|location=|pages=429–487|chapter=SECTION IV - LOCALISED NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE AND ITS MANAGEMENT C. PERIPHERAL NERVE AND MUSCLE|oclc=972843900}}</ref> This paraneoplastic syndrome may present as either a sensory neuropathy, affecting primarily the dorsal root ganglion, resulting in a progressive sensory loss associated with painful paresthesias of the upper limbs, or a mixed sensorimotor neuropathy which is also characterized by progressive weakness. Treatment of paraneoplastic syndromes aim for both elimination of tumor tissue via conventional [[Oncology|oncologic]] approach as well as immunotherapy options such as steroids, plasmapheresis or IVIG.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leypoldt F, Wandinger KP | title = Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes | journal = Clinical and Experimental Immunology | volume = 175 | issue = 3 | pages = 336–48 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 23937626 | pmc = 3927895 | doi = 10.1111/cei.12185 }}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | Metabolic abnormalities and deficiencies in certain vitamin, particularly B vitamins, are associated with inflammatory degeneration of peripheral nerves |
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| ⚫ | Metabolic abnormalities and deficiencies in certain vitamin, particularly B vitamins, are associated with inflammatory degeneration of peripheral nerves.ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ang CD, Alviar MJ, Dans AL, Bautista-Velez GG, Villaruz-Sulit MV, Tan JJ, Co HU, Bautista MR, Roxas AA | display-authors = 6 | title = Vitamin B for treating peripheral neuropathy | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 3 | pages = CD004573 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18646107 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004573.pub3 | editor-last = Cochrane Neuromuscular Group }}</ref> Deficiency of vitamin B<sub>1</sub>, [[thiamine]], causes beriberi which can be associated with a painful sensory neuropathy with muscle weakness and atrophy. Deficiency of niacine, vitamin B<sub>3</sub>, causes pellagra which can present with various peripheral neuropathies in addition to keratotic skin lesions. Vitamin B<sub>6</sub>, pyridoxine, has been associated with peripheral nerve damage both in cases of deficiency and excess.<ref name=":6">{{cite book |last=Weimer|first=Louis H.|title=Metabolic, Immune-Mediated, and Toxic Neuropathies |date=2007|work=Neurology and Clinical Neuroscience|pages=1113–1126|publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-323-03354-1.50087-0|isbn=978-0-323-03354-1 |last2=Anziska|first2=Yaacov}}</ref> Deficiency of vitamin B<sub>12</sub> causes [[Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord|subacute combined degeneration]], a disease classically associated with a central demyelinating process; however, it also presents with a painful peripheral neuropathy. Treatment of vitamin deficiencies focuses around repletion of specific deficiencies, recovery is often prolonged and some of the damage is often permanent.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morrison B, Chaudhry V | title = Medication, toxic, and vitamin-related neuropathies | journal = Continuum | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 139–60 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22810074 | doi = 10.1212/01.CON.0000411565.49332.84 }}</ref> |
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'''Toxic''' |
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=== Toxic === |
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| ⚫ | Many classes of medication may have toxic effects on peripheral nerves, these [[iatrogenic]] neuropathies are an increasingly common form of neuritis<ref>{{ |
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| ⚫ | Many classes of medication may have toxic effects on peripheral nerves, these [[iatrogenic]] neuropathies are an increasingly common form of neuritis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Toyooka K, Fujimura H | title = Iatrogenic neuropathies | journal = Current Opinion in Neurology | volume = 22 | issue = 5 | pages = 475–9 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19593126 | doi = 10.1097/WCO.0b013e32832fbc52 }}</ref> Broad categories of medications associated with toxic effects on nerves include: [[Chemotherapy|antineoplastic agents]], [[Antibiotic|antibiotics]], [[Immunosuppressive drug|immunosuppressants]], and cardiac medications.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morrison B, Chaudhry V | title = Medication, toxic, and vitamin-related neuropathies | journal = Continuum | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 139–60 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22810074 | doi = 10.1212/01.CON.0000411565.49332.84 }}</ref> Management of these medication induced neuropathies center around discontinuation of the offending agents, although patients will frequently continue to worsen for several weeks after cessation of administration.<ref name=":6" /> |
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==Diagnosis== |
==Diagnosis== |
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The accurate diagnosis and characterization of a neuritis begins with a thorough [[Physical examination|physical exam]] to characterize and localize any symptoms to a specific nerve or distribution of nerves<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|last=Lindsay, Kenneth W.|title=Neurology and neurosurgery illustrated.|date=2011|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|isbn=978-0-443-06957-4|location=|pages=429–487|chapter=SECTION IV - LOCALISED NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE AND ITS MANAGEMENT C. PERIPHERAL NERVE AND MUSCLE|oclc=972843900}}</ref> |
The accurate diagnosis and characterization of a neuritis begins with a thorough [[Physical examination|physical exam]] to characterize and localize any symptoms to a specific nerve or distribution of nerves.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book|last=Lindsay, Kenneth W.|title=Neurology and neurosurgery illustrated.|date=2011|publisher=Churchill Livingstone|isbn=978-0-443-06957-4|location=|pages=429–487|chapter=SECTION IV - LOCALISED NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE AND ITS MANAGEMENT C. PERIPHERAL NERVE AND MUSCLE|oclc=972843900}}</ref> An exam will assess the time course, distribution, and severity and nerve dysfunction as well as whether the disease process involves sensory, motor, or both sensorimotor nerves. After the lesion has been localized, a more focused investigation may use specific techniques appropriate for the involved nerves. Blood tests should be performed to evaluate blood glucose and serum B<sub>12</sub> levels with metabolites, additional measurement of specific vitamins or toxins may be performed as indicated if the history and physical exam are consistent. Medical tests which are often useful include: [[nerve biopsy]], [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]], [[Electromyography|electromography]], [[Nerve conduction study|nerve conduction studies]]. [[Ophthalmoscopy|fundoscopy]], and [[Lumbar puncture|lumbar punctures]]. However, the diagnosis of many of the disorders associated with neuritis is a clinical one which does not rely upon any particular diagnostic test.<ref name="Saporta_2015" />><ref name=":42">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pau D, Al Zubidi N, Yalamanchili S, Plant GT, Lee AG | title = Optic neuritis | journal = Eye | volume = 25 | issue = 7 | pages = 833–42 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 21527960 | pmc = 3178158 | doi = 10.1038/eye.2011.81 }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leonhard SE, Mandarakas MR, Gondim FA, Bateman K, Ferreira ML, Cornblath DR, van Doorn PA, Dourado ME, Hughes RA, Islam B, Kusunoki S, Pardo CA, Reisin R, Sejvar JJ, Shahrizaila N, Soares C, Umapathi T, Wang Y, Yiu EM, Willison HJ, Jacobs BC | display-authors = 6 | title = Diagnosis and management of Guillain-Barré syndrome in ten steps | journal = Nature Reviews. Neurology | volume = 15 | issue = 11 | pages = 671–683 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 31541214 | pmc = 6821638 | doi = 10.1038/s41582-019-0250-9 }}</ref> |
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Revision as of 17:05, 16 May 2020
| Neuritis | |
|---|---|
_(14586524238).jpg) | |
| Sciatic Nerve in acute polyneuritis (Top) and Ulnar nerve in polyneuritis leprosa (Bottom) | |
| Specialty | Neurology |
| Symptoms | Pain, Paresthesia, Paresis, Anesthesia, Paralysis |
| Causes | Autoimmune disease, Infection, Physical injury, Paraneoplastic syndrome |
| Diagnostic method | Physical exam, electrodiagnostic studies, MRI, nerve biopsy |
| Medication | Corticosteroids, Plasmapharesis, IVIG, Gabapentin, Amitriptyline |
Neuritis (/njʊəˈraɪtɪs/) is inflammation of a nerve[1] or the general inflammation of the peripheral nervous system. Inflammation, and frequently concomitant demyelination,[2][3][4] cause impaired conduction of neural signals and leads to aberrant nerve function. Neuritis is often conflated with neuropathy, a broad term describing any disease process which affects the peripheral nervous system. However, neuropathies may be due to either inflammatory[5] or non-inflammatory causes,[6] and the term encompasses any form of damage, degeneration, or dysfunction, while neuritis refers specifically to the inflammatory process.
As inflammation is a common reaction to biological insult, many conditions may present with features of neuritis. Common causes include autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis; infection, either bacterial, such as leprosy, or viral, such as varicella zoster; post-infectious immune reactions, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome; or a response to physical injury, as frequently seen in siatica.[7][8]
While any nerve in the body may undergo inflammation,[9] specific etiologies may preferentially affect specific nerves.[10] The nature of symptoms depends on the specific nerves involved, neuritis in a sensory nerve may cause pain, paresthesia (pins-and-needles), hypoesthesia (numbness), and anesthesia, and neuritis in a motor nerve may cause paresis (weakness), fasiculation, paralysis, or muscle wasting.
Treatment of neuritis centers around removing or managing any inciting cause of inflammation, followed by supportive care and anti-inflammatory or immune modulatory treatments as well as symptomatic management.
Causes
Infectious
Both active infections and post-infectious autoimmune processes cause neuritis.[11] Rapid identification of an infectious cause of neuritis dictates treatment approach and often has a much more positive long term prognosis than other etiologies.[12] Bacterial, viral, and spirochete infections all have been associated with inflammatory neural responses. Some of the bacterial agents most associated with neuritis are leprosy, lyme disease, and diphtheria. Viral causes of neuritis include herpes simplex virus, varicella zoster virus, and HIV.
Leprosy is frequently characterized by direct neural infection by the causative organism, mycobacterium leprae.[13] Leprosy presents with a heterogeneous clinical picture dictated by bacterial titer and inborn host resistance.[12] Tuberculoid leprosy, seen in cases where host immunity is high, is not commonly associated with neuritis. It presents with a low number of anesthetic, anhydrotic skin plaques with few bacilli, the result of a granulomatous process which destroys cutaneous nerves.[14] Lepromatous leprosy, seen when the host lacks resistance to the organism, presents with widespread skin lesions and palpably enlarged nerves.[14] Disease involvement in this form of leprosy characteristically progresses from cooler regions of the body, such as the tip of the nose and ear lobes, towards warmer regions of the body eventually resulting in extensive loss of sensation and destructive skin lesions. Rapid treatment is a critical component of care in patients affected with leprosy, delayed care results in permanent loss of sensation and tissue damage which requires an extensive treatment regime.[15]
Lyme disease, caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi, is a tick-borne illness with both peripheral and central neurological manifestations. The first stage of Lyme disease frequently presents with a pathognomonic "bull's eye" rash, erythema migrans, as well as fever, malaise, and arthralgias. Roughly 15% of untreated patients will then develop neurological manifestations, classically characterized by cranial neuropathy, radiculoneuritis, and a lymphocytic meningitis.[15] The nerve inflammation seen in neurological lyme disease is associated with a lymphoctyic infiltrate without evidence of direct infection of peripheral nerves.[14] While commonly self-limiting, treatment with antibiotics may hasten resolution of symptoms.[16][17]
Diptheria, a once common childhood respiratory infection, produces a neurotoxin which can result in a biphasic neuropathy.[15] This neuropathy begins with paralysis and numbness of the soft palate and pharynx as well as bulbar weakness several days to weeks after the initial upper respiratory infection, followed by an ascending flaccid paralysis caused by an acute inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy after several more weeks.[14] While antibiotics are effective at eradicating the bacterium, neurological sequelae of infection must be treated with diptheria antitoxin.[18]
Herpes simplex virus is a common virus which latently resides in neuronal ganglia between active infections. HSV-1 commonly resides in cranial nerve ganglia, particularly the trigeminal ganglia, and may cause painful neuralgias during active periods. It has also been associated with Bell's palsy, and vestibular neuritis.[19] HSV-2 frequently lies within lumbosacral ganglia and is associated with radiculopathies during active infection.[15] Herpes reactivation is often treated with acyclovir, although evidence for its efficacy in controlling peripheral neurological manifestation of disease remain poor.[20]
Varicella zoster virus, the cause of chickenpox, can be found dormant throughout the nervous system after an initial infection. Reactivation of the virus cause herpes zoster, commonly known as shingles, is seen in a dematomal or cranial nerve distribution corresponding to the ganglion in which the latent virus resided. After the herpetic rash resolves, an additional period of postherpatic neuralgia may persist for weeks to months.[14] Antiviral medications, including acyclovir, are effective at controlling viral reactivation. Management of ensuing neuropathic often requires further management possibly including gabapentin, amitriptyline, carbamazepine, or topical lidocaine.[21]
HIV is associated with a broad range of neurological manifestations, both during acute infection and during the progression of the disease. During acute infection both direct peripheral nervous involvement, most commonly bilateral facial palsy, and an acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (Guillian-Barré syndrome) have been reported. As the disease process progresses, diffuse infiltrative lymphocytosis syndrome may include a lymphocytic inflammation of peripheral nerves which results in a painful symmetric polyneuropathy. Immune dysfunction over the course of infection may also result in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy or vasculitis induced mononeuritis multiplex.[22] Identifying HIV-associated neuropathy is confounded by the neurotoxic nature of many of the antiretrovirals used to manage the disease, as a general rule HIV-associated neuropathy will improve with continued antiretroviral therapy while medicated associated neuropathy will worsen.[14]
Autoimmune
Multiple sclerosis and Neuromyelitis optica are autoimmune diseases which both frequently present with optic neuritis, an inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy of the optic nerve.[23] Multiple sclerosis is a disease of unknown etiology which is characterized by neurological lesions "disseminated in time and space".[24] Neuromyelitis optica, once considered a subtype of multiple sclerosis, is characterized by neuromyelitis optica IgG antibodies which selectively bind to aquaporin-4.[25] Optic neuritis is associated monocular vision loss, often initially characterized by a defect in color perception (dyschromatopsia) followed by blurring of vision and loss of acuity. Optic neuritis is also commonly associated with periocular pain, phosphenes, and other visual disturbances. Treatment of acute optic neuritis involves corticosteroids, plasmapheresis, and IV immunoglobulins in additions to disease modifying immunotherapies to manage the underlying neuropathology associated with the acute inflammatory episode.[26]
Guillian-Barré Syndrome is a class of acute polyneuropathies which present with flaccid paralysis, they include acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP), acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN), acute ataxia, and Miller-Fisher syndrome.[14] These disorders are post-infectious syndromes in which symptoms often present several weeks after the resolution of an acute infection, commonly an upper respiratory infection or gastroeneteritis, due to molecular mimicry between peripheral nerve and microbial antigens.[15] AIDP, which represents the vast majority of Guillian-Barré cases, classically presents with an acute onset, ascending paralysis which begins in the distal extremities. This paralysis may progress rapidly over the course of several days and lead to ventilatory failure requiring intubation. Symptoms will commonly spontaneously resolve after several weeks. Thus, management of Guillian-Barré relies upon supportive care to manage ventilation and feeding until symptoms remit. Adjunctive immunomodulation with plasmapharesis and IV immunoglobulin have both been shown to increase the rate of recovery.[27]
Chronic Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyneuropathy (CIDP) is an inflammatory neuropathy, which while pathophysiologically similar to AIDP, progresses over a much more protracted time scale.[15] CIDP has an insidious onset and progresses over months to years, but is otherwise similar to AIDP in serological, CSF, and electrodiagnostic studies. Treatment consists of corticosteroids, with IV immunoglobulon or plasmapheresis as a bridge treatment until symptoms respond to corticosteroids.[28]
Paraneoplastic
Several different malignancies, particularly small-cell lung cancer and Hodgkin lymphoma, are associated with a paraneoplastic neuritis. This carcinomatous polyneuropathy is associated with the presence of antibodies against onconeural antigen, Hu, Yo, amphiphysin, or CV2/CRMP5, which recognize and bind to both tumor cells and peripheral nervous system neurons.[29] This paraneoplastic syndrome may present as either a sensory neuropathy, affecting primarily the dorsal root ganglion, resulting in a progressive sensory loss associated with painful paresthesias of the upper limbs, or a mixed sensorimotor neuropathy which is also characterized by progressive weakness. Treatment of paraneoplastic syndromes aim for both elimination of tumor tissue via conventional oncologic approach as well as immunotherapy options such as steroids, plasmapheresis or IVIG.[30]
Metabolic
Metabolic abnormalities and deficiencies in certain vitamin, particularly B vitamins, are associated with inflammatory degeneration of peripheral nerves.ref>Ang CD, Alviar MJ, Dans AL, Bautista-Velez GG, Villaruz-Sulit MV, Tan JJ, et al. (July 2008). Cochrane Neuromuscular Group (ed.). "Vitamin B for treating peripheral neuropathy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3): CD004573. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004573.pub3. PMID 18646107.</ref> Deficiency of vitamin B1, thiamine, causes beriberi which can be associated with a painful sensory neuropathy with muscle weakness and atrophy. Deficiency of niacine, vitamin B3, causes pellagra which can present with various peripheral neuropathies in addition to keratotic skin lesions. Vitamin B6, pyridoxine, has been associated with peripheral nerve damage both in cases of deficiency and excess.[31] Deficiency of vitamin B12 causes subacute combined degeneration, a disease classically associated with a central demyelinating process; however, it also presents with a painful peripheral neuropathy. Treatment of vitamin deficiencies focuses around repletion of specific deficiencies, recovery is often prolonged and some of the damage is often permanent.[32]
Toxic
Many classes of medication may have toxic effects on peripheral nerves, these iatrogenic neuropathies are an increasingly common form of neuritis.[33] Broad categories of medications associated with toxic effects on nerves include: antineoplastic agents, antibiotics, immunosuppressants, and cardiac medications.[34] Management of these medication induced neuropathies center around discontinuation of the offending agents, although patients will frequently continue to worsen for several weeks after cessation of administration.[31]
Diagnosis
The accurate diagnosis and characterization of a neuritis begins with a thorough physical exam to characterize and localize any symptoms to a specific nerve or distribution of nerves.[35] An exam will assess the time course, distribution, and severity and nerve dysfunction as well as whether the disease process involves sensory, motor, or both sensorimotor nerves. After the lesion has been localized, a more focused investigation may use specific techniques appropriate for the involved nerves. Blood tests should be performed to evaluate blood glucose and serum B12 levels with metabolites, additional measurement of specific vitamins or toxins may be performed as indicated if the history and physical exam are consistent. Medical tests which are often useful include: nerve biopsy, MRI, electromography, nerve conduction studies. fundoscopy, and lumbar punctures. However, the diagnosis of many of the disorders associated with neuritis is a clinical one which does not rely upon any particular diagnostic test.[15]>[36][37]
References
- ^ "neuritis" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
- ^ Pau D, Al Zubidi N, Yalamanchili S, Plant GT, Lee AG (July 2011). "Optic neuritis". Eye. 25 (7): 833–42. doi:10.1038/eye.2011.81. PMC 3178158. PMID 21527960.
- ^ Chowdhury D, Arora A (May 2001). "Axonal Guillain-Barré syndrome: a critical review". Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. 103 (5): 267–77. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0404.2001.103005267.x. PMID 11328201.
- ^ Oaklander AL, Lunn MP, Hughes RA, van Schaik IN, Frost C, Chalk CH (January 2017). "Treatments for chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (CIDP): an overview of systematic reviews". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 1. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: CD010369. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010369. PMID 28084646.
- ^ "CHAPTER 88: INFLAMMATORY AND INFECTIOUS POLYNEUROPATHY". Neurological disorders : course and treatment. Brandt, Thomas, 1943- (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-12-125831-3. OCLC 162571014.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ "CHAPTER 89: Noninflammatory Polyneuropathy". Neurological disorders : course and treatment. Brandt, Thomas, 1943- (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-12-125831-3. OCLC 162571014.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Martini R, Willison H (April 2016). "Neuroinflammation in the peripheral nerve: Cause, modulator, or bystander in peripheral neuropathies?". Glia. 64 (4): 475–86. doi:10.1002/glia.22899. PMC 4832258. PMID 26250643.
- ^ Baloh, Robert W. (Robert William), 1942- (14 August 2018). Sciatica and chronic pain : past, present and future. Cham, Switzerland. ISBN 978-3-319-93904-9. OCLC 1048610895.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health (Seventh ed.). 2003.
- ^ Al Khalili, Yasir; Jain, Sameer; DeCastro, Alexei (2020), "Brachial Neuritis", StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing, PMID 29763017, retrieved 2020-05-11
- ^ Hehir MK, Logigian EL (October 2014). "Infectious neuropathies". Continuum. 20 (5 Peripheral Nervous System Disorders): 1274–92. doi:10.1212/01.CON.0000455881.83803.a9. PMID 25299282.
- ^ a b "Chapter 88: Inflammatory and Infectious Polyneuropathy". Neurological disorders : course and treatment. Brandt, Thomas, 1943- (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-12-125831-3. OCLC 162571014.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ IAL Textbook of Leprosy. 2017. doi:10.5005/jp/books/12958. ISBN 9789351529910.
- ^ a b c d e f g Kershen, Joshua; Sabin, Thomas (2007). Infective Neuropathies. Elsevier. pp. 1127–1140. doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-03354-1.50088-2. ISBN 978-0-323-03354-1.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|name-list-format=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d e f g Saporta, Mario A.; Shy, Michael E. (2015). Peripheral Neuropathies. Elsevier. pp. 167–188. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-398270-4.00012-4. ISBN 978-0-12-398270-4.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|name-list-format=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - ^ Cunha, Burke A., editor. Tickborne infectious diseases : diagnosis and management. ISBN 978-0-8247-4648-3. OCLC 892787077.
{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Halperin JJ (January 2018). "Diagnosis and management of Lyme neuroborreliosis". Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 16 (1): 5–11. doi:10.1080/14787210.2018.1417836. PMID 29278020.
- ^ Sharma NC, Efstratiou A, Mokrousov I, Mutreja A, Das B, Ramamurthy T (December 2019). "Diphtheria". Nature Reviews. Disease Primers. 5 (1): 81. doi:10.1038/s41572-019-0131-y. PMID 31804499.
- ^ Abai, Babak, editor. "Vestibular Neuronitis (Labyrinthitis)". StatPearls. OCLC 1021256616.
{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Taylor, Michael; Gerriets, Valerie (2020). Acyclovir. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 31194337.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ Johnson RW, Alvarez-Pasquin MJ, Bijl M, Franco E, Gaillat J, Clara JG, et al. (July 2015). "Herpes zoster epidemiology, management, and disease and economic burden in Europe: a multidisciplinary perspective". Therapeutic Advances in Vaccines. 3 (4): 109–20. doi:10.1177/2051013615599151. PMC 4591524. PMID 26478818.
- ^ Gabbai AA, Castelo A, Oliveira AS (2013). "HIV peripheral neuropathy". Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 115. Elsevier: 515–29. doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-52902-2.00029-1. ISBN 978-0-444-52902-2. PMID 23931799.
- ^ Pau D, Al Zubidi N, Yalamanchili S, Plant GT, Lee AG (July 2011). "Optic neuritis". Eye. 25 (7): 833–42. doi:10.1038/eye.2011.81. PMC 3178158. PMID 21527960.
- ^ Abai, Babak, editor. "Multiple Sclerosis". StatPearls. OCLC 1021256616.
{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Roemer SF, Parisi JE, Lennon VA, Benarroch EE, Lassmann H, Bruck W, et al. (May 2007). "Pattern-specific loss of aquaporin-4 immunoreactivity distinguishes neuromyelitis optica from multiple sclerosis". Brain. 130 (Pt 5): 1194–205. doi:10.1093/brain/awl371. PMID 17282996.
- ^ "Optic neuritis". Springer Reference. Springer-Verlag. 2011. doi:10.1007/springerreference_39307.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ Leonhard SE, Mandarakas MR, Gondim FA, Bateman K, Ferreira ML, Cornblath DR, et al. (November 2019). "Diagnosis and management of Guillain-Barré syndrome in ten steps". Nature Reviews. Neurology. 15 (11): 671–683. doi:10.1038/s41582-019-0250-9. PMC 6821638. PMID 31541214.
- ^ Lewis RA (October 2017). "Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy". Current Opinion in Neurology. 30 (5): 508–512. doi:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000481. PMID 28763304.
- ^ Lindsay, Kenneth W. (2011). "SECTION IV - LOCALISED NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE AND ITS MANAGEMENT C. PERIPHERAL NERVE AND MUSCLE". Neurology and neurosurgery illustrated. Churchill Livingstone. pp. 429–487. ISBN 978-0-443-06957-4. OCLC 972843900.
- ^ Leypoldt F, Wandinger KP (March 2014). "Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes". Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 175 (3): 336–48. doi:10.1111/cei.12185. PMC 3927895. PMID 23937626.
- ^ a b Weimer, Louis H.; Anziska, Yaacov (2007). Metabolic, Immune-Mediated, and Toxic Neuropathies. Elsevier. pp. 1113–1126. doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-03354-1.50087-0. ISBN 978-0-323-03354-1.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ Morrison B, Chaudhry V (February 2012). "Medication, toxic, and vitamin-related neuropathies". Continuum. 18 (1): 139–60. doi:10.1212/01.CON.0000411565.49332.84. PMID 22810074.
- ^ Toyooka K, Fujimura H (October 2009). "Iatrogenic neuropathies". Current Opinion in Neurology. 22 (5): 475–9. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e32832fbc52. PMID 19593126.
- ^ Morrison B, Chaudhry V (February 2012). "Medication, toxic, and vitamin-related neuropathies". Continuum. 18 (1): 139–60. doi:10.1212/01.CON.0000411565.49332.84. PMID 22810074.
- ^ Lindsay, Kenneth W. (2011). "SECTION IV - LOCALISED NEUROLOGICAL DISEASE AND ITS MANAGEMENT C. PERIPHERAL NERVE AND MUSCLE". Neurology and neurosurgery illustrated. Churchill Livingstone. pp. 429–487. ISBN 978-0-443-06957-4. OCLC 972843900.
- ^ Pau D, Al Zubidi N, Yalamanchili S, Plant GT, Lee AG (July 2011). "Optic neuritis". Eye. 25 (7): 833–42. doi:10.1038/eye.2011.81. PMC 3178158. PMID 21527960.
- ^ Leonhard SE, Mandarakas MR, Gondim FA, Bateman K, Ferreira ML, Cornblath DR, et al. (November 2019). "Diagnosis and management of Guillain-Barré syndrome in ten steps". Nature Reviews. Neurology. 15 (11): 671–683. doi:10.1038/s41582-019-0250-9. PMC 6821638. PMID 31541214.