250t-class torpedo boat

250t-class
torpedo boat

a black and white photograph of a small ship underway The first of the 250t class, 74 T
Class overview
Builders	T-group Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino F-group Ganz & Danubius M-group Cantiere Navale Triestino
Operators	Austro-Hungarian Navy Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes Romanian Naval Forces Portuguese Navy Hellenic Navy Royal Yugoslav Navy Regia Marina Kriegsmarine Navy of the Independent State of Croatia Soviet Navy Yugoslav Navy
Preceded by	110t-class torpedo boat
Built	1913–16
In commission	1914–63
Completed	27
Lost	15
Scrapped	12
General characteristics
Type	Sea-going torpedo boat
Displacement	262–270 t (258–266 long tons) 320–330 t (315–325 long tons) (full load)
Length	58.2–60.5 m (190 ft 11 in – 198 ft 6 in)
Beam	5.6–5.8 m (18 ft 4 in – 19 ft 0 in)
Draught	1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) (all groups)
Installed power	2 × Yarrow boilers 5,000–6,000 shp (3,700–4,500 kW)
Propulsion	2 × shafts 2 × steam turbines
Speed	28–28.5 knots (51.9–52.8 km/h; 32.2–32.8 mph)
Endurance	T-group 980 nmi (1,810 km; 1,130 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph) F-group and M-group 1,200 nmi (2,200 km; 1,400 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph)
Complement	38–39
Armament	2 × Škoda 66 mm (2.6 in) L/30 guns 4 × 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes 10–12 naval mines

The 250t class were high-seas torpedo boats built for the Austro-Hungarian Navy between 1913 and 1916. A total of 27 boats were built by three shipbuilding companies, with the letter after the boat number indicating the manufacturer. There were small variations between manufacturers, mainly in the steam turbines used, and whether they had one or two funnels. The eight boats of the T-group, designated 74 T – 81 T, were built by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino, located at Trieste. The sixteen boats of the F-group, designated 82 F – 97 F, were built by Ganz & Danubius at their shipyards at Fiume and Porto Re. The three M-group boats, designated 98 M – 100 M, were manufactured by Cantiere Navale Triestino at Monfalcone.

All 27 boats saw service in World War I, performing convoy, escort and minesweeping tasks, and anti-submarine operations. Although widely used during the war, the class suffered no losses, and available sources indicate they were only involved in a few engagements. In 1917, one of the 66 mm (2.6 in) guns on each boat was placed on an anti-aircraft mount. Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the boats were transferred to various countries, including seven to Romania, six to Portugal, six to Greece, and eight to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia). By 1940, thirteen boats of the class had been lost or scrapped, including all six Portuguese boats.

During World War II, the five remaining Greek boats were sunk by Axis aircraft during the German-led invasion of Greece in April 1941. One Romanian boat was lost during the war, while the two remaining Romanian boats performed escort tasks in the Black Sea before being taken over by the Soviet Navy, and serving in their Black Sea Fleet until the end of the war; they were finally stricken in late 1945.

The six surviving Yugoslav boats were captured by the Italians during the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, and were operated by the Regia Marina. Immediately following the Italian capitulation in September 1943, one ex-Yugoslav boat was sunk by German aircraft, another was scuttled by its Italian crew, and two more fell back into Yugoslav hands. The remaining two were seized by the Germans. Of the two ex-Yugoslav boats taken over by the Germans, both were operated by Croatian crews or by the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia for some time before being recovered from them by the Germans. One was destroyed by Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boats in June 1944, and the other was sunk by Royal Air Force aircraft in 1945. The two surviving boats were commissioned by the Yugoslav Navy after the war, with one continuing in service until the early 1960s.

Background

In 1910, the Austria-Hungary Naval Technical Committee initiated the design and development of a 275-tonne (271-long-ton) coastal torpedo boat, specifying that it should be capable of sustaining 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph) for 10 hours. This specification was based on an expectation that the Strait of Otranto, where the Adriatic Sea meets the Ionian Sea, would be blockaded by hostile forces during a future conflict. In such circumstances, there would be a need for a torpedo boat that could sail from the Austro-Hungarian Navy base at Cattaro to the Strait during darkness, locate and attack blockading ships and return to port before morning. Steam turbine power was selected for propulsion, as diesels with the necessary power were not available, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy did not have the practical experience to run turbo-electric boats.

Description and construction

Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino (STT) of Trieste was selected for the contract to build eight vessels, ahead of one other tenderer. Despite the specifications of the contract being very close to the requirements for the coastal torpedo boat, the STT boats were classified as sea-going. The STT boats used Parsons turbines driving two propeller shafts. Another tender was requested for four more boats, but when Ganz & Danubius reduced their price by ten percent, a total of sixteen boats were ordered from them. These boats were powered by AEG-Curtiss turbines, and had two funnels rather than the single funnel of the STT boats. The third contract went to Cantiere Navale Triestino (CNT), who used Melms-Pfenniger turbines, and their boats also had two funnels. The boats of all three groups used steam generated by two Yarrow water-tube boilers, one of which burned fuel oil and the other coal.

When completed, all 27 boats were armed with two Škoda 66 mm (2.6 in) L/30 guns, and four 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes. Each vessel could carry 10–12 naval mines.

T-group

The T-group were built by STT at the Port of Trieste between April 1913 and December 1914. They had a waterline length of 58.2 m (190 ft 11 in), a beam of 5.7 m (18 ft 8 in), and a normal draught of 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in). While their designed displacement was 262 tonnes (258 long tons), they displaced about 320 tonnes (310 long tons) fully loaded. The crew consisted of 39 officers and enlisted men. Their Parsons turbines were rated at 5,000 shp (3,700 kW) with a maximum output of 6,000 shp (4,500 kW) and designed to reach a top speed of 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph). They carried 18 tonnes (17.7 long tons) of coal and 24 tonnes (23.6 long tons) of fuel oil, which gave them a range of 980 nmi (1,810 km; 1,130 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph).

The T-group boats were originally to be armed with three 66 mm (2.6 in) L/30 guns, and three 450 mm (17.7 in) torpedo tubes, but this was changed to two guns and four torpedo tubes before the first boat was completed, in order to standardise the armament with the following F-group. In 1914, one 8 mm (0.31 in) machine gun was added.

Construction of T-group torpedo boats

Name	Laid down	Launched	Completed
74 T	16 April 1913	28 August 1913	1 February 1914
75 T	25 May 1913	20 November 1913	11 July 1914
76 T	24 June 1913	15 December 1913	20 July 1914
77 T	24 August 1913	30 January 1914	11 August 1914
78 T	22 October 1913	4 March 1914	23 August 1914
79 T	1 December 1913	30 April 1914	30 September 1914
80 T	19 December 1913	3 August 1914	8 November 1914
81 T	6 February 1914	6 August 1914	1 December 1914

When 74 T's turbines were initially installed, the problems with them were so significant that all her power and propulsion machinery had to be rebuilt. She was launched for a second time on 26 June 1914.

F-group

The F-group were built by Ganz & Danubius at Fiume and nearby Porto Re between October 1913 and December 1916. They had a waterline length of 58.5 m (191 ft 11 in), a beam of 5.8 m (19 ft 0 in), and a normal draught of 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in). While their designed displacement was 266 tonnes (262 long tons), they displaced about 330 tonnes (320 long tons) fully loaded. The crew consisted of 38 officers and enlisted men. Their AEG-Curtiss turbines were rated at 5,000 shp (3,700 kW) with a maximum output of 6,000 shp (4,500 kW), and the boats were designed to reach a top speed of 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph). During trials, 93 F produced 6,450 shp (4,810 kW), and reached a top speed of 29.7 knots (55.0 km/h; 34.2 mph). They carried 20 long tons (20.3 t) of coal and 34 long tons (34.5 t) of fuel oil, which gave them a range of 1,200 nmi (2,200 km; 1,400 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph).

Several 250t-class torpedo boats, including F-group vessels 83 F, 93 F and 96 F

Construction of F-group torpedo boats

Name	Laid down	Launched	Completed
82 F	30 October 1913	11 August 1914	16 August 1916
83 F	17 November 1913	7 November 1914	7 August 1915
84 F	27 November 1913	21 November 1914	2 November 1916
85 F	7 January 1914	5 December 1914	19 December 1915
86 F	26 January 1914	19 December 1914	23 May 1916
87 F	5 March 1914	20 March 1915	25 October 1915
88 F	7 March 1914	24 April 1915	30 November 1915
89 F	13 May 1914	12 May 1915	1 March 1916
90 F	9 September 1914	28 May 1915	8 August 1916
91 F	24 November 1914	21 June 1916	11 July 1916
92 F	30 November 1914	29 September 1916	23 March 1916
93 F	9 January 1915	25 November 1915	16 April 1916
94 F	19 January 1915	8 March 1916	17 June 1916
95 F	9 February 1915	24 June 1916	27 September 1916
96 F	24 February 1915	7 July 1916	23 November 1916
97 F	5 March 1915	20 August 1916	22 December 1916

When Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary in May 1915, five incomplete F-group boats were towed to be completed in safety. 82 F, 83 F and 84 F were taken from Porto Re to Pola, and 90 F and 91 F were taken to Novigrad. This resulted in delays to the completion of these boats.

M-group

First of the "M"-group, 98 M, underway

The M-group were built by CNT at Monfalcone between March 1914 and March 1916. They had a waterline length of 60.5 m (198 ft 6 in), a beam of 5.6 m (18 ft 4 in), and a normal draught of 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in). While their designed displacement was 270 tonnes (266 long tons), they displaced about 330 tonnes (320 long tons) fully loaded. The crew consisted of 38 officers and enlisted men. Their Melms-Pfenniger turbines were rated at 5,000 shp (3,700 kW) with a maximum output of 6,000 shp (4,500 kW), and the boats were designed to reach a top speed of 28.5 knots (52.8 km/h; 32.8 mph). They carried enough coal and fuel oil to give them a range of 1,200 nmi (2,200 km; 1,400 mi) at 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph).

Construction of M-group torpedo boats

Name	Laid down	Launched	Completed
98 M	19 March 1914	18 November 1914	19 August 1915
99 M	22 March 1914	17 December 1914	29 October 1915
100 M	28 March 1914	15 January 1915	13 March 1916

Service history

World War I

Damage to 80 T incurred during a raid on Porto Corsini on 24 May 1915

At the outbreak of World War I, 74 T – 77 T comprised the 1st Torpedo Group of the 3rd Torpedo Craft Division of the Austro-Hungarian 1st Torpedo Craft Flotilla. All 27 boats saw service, performing convoy, escort and minesweeping tasks, and anti-submarine operations. They also conducted patrols and supported seaplane raids against the Italian coast. Due to inadequate funding, the 250t class were essentially coastal vessels, despite the original intention that they would be used for "high seas" operations. On the morning of 24 May 1915, 80 T was part of the Bombardment of Ancona, a fleet action that involved the shelling of various targets in the Province of Ancona and 11 other Adriatic ports. At Porto Corsini near Ravenna, an Italian 120 mm (4.7 in) shore battery returned fire, hitting the light cruiser Novara and damaging 80 T. In late November 1915, the Austro-Hungarian fleet deployed a force from its main fleet base at Pola to Cattaro in the southern Adriatic; this force included six of the T-group torpedo boats. This force was tasked to maintain a permanent patrol of the Albanian coastline and interdict any troop transports crossing from Italy. On the night of 31 May – 1 June 1916, the Tátra-class destroyers Orjen and Balaton, accompanied by 77 T, 79 T and 81 T, raided the Otranto Barrage, an Allied naval blockade of the Strait of Otranto. Orjen sank one drifter, but once the alarm had been raised, the Austro-Hungarian force withdrew.

In 1917, one of the 66 mm (2.6 in) guns on each boat was placed on an anti-aircraft mount. On 11 May 1917, the British submarine HMS H1 stalked 78 T off Pola, firing two torpedoes at her. The British captain had kept his submarine's periscope extended too far and for too long, and the tell-tale "feather" alerted the crew of 78 T, allowing her to avoid the incoming torpedoes. On 14–15 May 1917, several 250t-class boats were part of the support forces for a major raid on the Otranto Barrage. On the departure of the raiding force, consisting of three light cruisers and two destroyers — torpedo boats and aircraft secured the approaches to the Austro-Hungarian naval base at Cattaro. Once the raiding force had departed for the barrage, the armoured cruiser Sankt Georg, a destroyer, and 84 F, 88 F, 99 M and 100 M were to be prepared to sortie out to support the raiders on their return voyage. The old coastal defence ship Budapest and 86 F, 91 F and 95 F were also available at Cattaro if needed. While the raid was a success, the raiding force was then engaged by Allied ships in the Battle of the Otranto Straits. Both support groups sailed to meet the returning Austro-Hungarian force, which included the heavily damaged Novara, which was under tow. On marrying-up with the raiding force, the torpedo boats fanned out to screen the larger warships, protecting them as they returned to port.

In late September 1917, 98 M was part of a squadron of four destroyers and four torpedo boats supporting an air attack on the Italian airfield at Ferrara by flying boats. After destroying an Italian airship, the squadron withdrew at high speed in the darkness, but was intercepted by an Italian squadron of eight destroyers that had been sent to support an Italian air raid on Pola. In the resultant 45 minute melee, several Austro-Hungarian destroyers were damaged. As the squadron retreated through the minefields off Parenzo, 98 M was hit by Italian fire, resulting in one casualty. In June 1918, 76 T was part of the escort force that failed to protect the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought Szent István from the Italian motor torpedo boats that sank her. During that action, 76 T fired at the Italian vessels, but did not score a hit.

Elements of the Austro-Hungarian fleet mutinied in Cattaro in February 1918, and in May, a plot was discovered to take over 80 T at Pola. The motive appeared to be nationalism. Two of the ringleaders, a Czech and a Dalmatian Croat, were tried, convicted and executed by firing squad. In October 1918, 87 F was at Durazzo in Albania when the port was bombarded by a multinational Allied naval force. She escaped with minor damage, in what was the last major action involving the Austro-Hungarian Navy.

Post-World War I transfers

Under the provisions of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, all Austro-Hungarian warships were surrendered to the Allies. The 250t-class torpedo boats were distributed among Romania, Portugal, Greece, and the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), as follows:

Transfer of T-group torpedo boats

Austro-Hungarian name	Transferred to	New name	Inter-war fate
74 T	Royal Romanian Navy	Viforul	scrapped in 1932
75 T	Romanian Navy	Vartejul	scrapped in 1932
76 T	Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes	T1	—
77 T	Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes	T2	scrapped in 1939
78 T	Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes	T3	—
79 T	Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes	T4	lost 1932
80 T	Romanian Navy	Vijelia	scrapped in 1932
81 T	Romanian Navy	Sborul	—

Transfer of F-group torpedo boats

Austro-Hungarian name	Transferred to	New name	Inter-war fate
82 F	Romanian Navy	Naluca	—
83 F	Romanian Navy	Smeul	—
84 F	Romanian Navy	Fulgerul	lost in the Bosphorus
85 F	Portuguese Navy	Zezere	lost 1921
86 F	Portuguese Navy	Ave	scrapped 1940
87 F	Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes	T5	—
88 F	Portuguese Navy	Cavado	lost 1921
89 F	Portuguese Navy	Sado	scrapped 1940
90 F	Portuguese Navy	Liz	scrapped 1934
91 F	Portuguese Navy	Mondego	scrapped 1938
92 F	Hellenic Navy	Proussa	—
93 F	Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes	T6	—
94 F	Hellenic Navy	Panormos	lost 1938
95 F	Hellenic Navy	Pergamos	—
96 F	Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes	T7	—
97 F	Navy of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes	T8	—

Transfer of M-group torpedo boats

Austro-Hungarian name	Transferred to	New name	Inter-war fate
98 M	Hellenic Navy	Kyzikos	—
99 M	Hellenic Navy	Kios	—
100 M	Hellenic Navy	Kydoniai	—

World War II

By 1940, thirteen boats of the class had been lost or scrapped, including all six Portuguese boats. At the time of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, the Yugoslav boats T1 and T3 were assigned to the Southern Sector of Coastal Defence Command based at the Bay of Kotor, along with several minesweepers and other craft. T5–T8 comprised the 3rd Torpedo Division located at Šibenik. On 8 April, the four boats of the 3rd Torpedo Division, along with other vessels, were tasked to support an attack on the Italian enclave of Zadar on the Dalmatia coast. They were subjected to three Italian air attacks and, after the last one, sailed from the area of Zaton into Lake Prokljan, where they remained until 11 April. On 12 April, the 3rd Torpedo Division arrived at Milna on the island of Brač, and refused to follow orders to sail to the Bay of Kotor. All six Yugoslav boats were then captured by the Italians.

The five surviving Greek boats were all sunk by aircraft during the German invasion of Greece, also in April 1941. The first was Proussa, which was sunk off Corfu on 4 April by Italian Junkers Ju 87 "Picchiatello"s of the 239th Squadron, 97th Dive Bomber Group. Later, Kios was sunk off Athens on 22 April, Kyzikos at Salamis on 24 April, Pergamos off Salamis on 25 April, and Kydoniai south of the Peloponnese peninsula on the following day, all by German aircraft.

The three Romanian boats were initially deployed against the Soviet Navy Black Sea Fleet following the launch of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, with Naluca and Sborul allocated to the 3rd Section of the Romanian Navy. On 9 July 1941, Naluca, along with a gunboat and three Motor Torpedo Boats (MTBs), sank the Soviet submarine SC-206 off the southern Romanian coast near Mangalia. Between 7–16 October 1941, all three Romanian torpedo boats were part of the escort for a minelaying group that laid several minefields along the Bulgarian coast to protect Axis shipping. Naluca was sunk by Soviet aircraft at Constanța on 20 August 1944, but Sborul and Smeul survived World War II, having been transferred to the Soviet Black Sea Fleet in late August 1944 after Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, serving as Musson and Toros respectively.

The Yugoslav boats served in a coastal and second-line escort role with the Royal Italian Navy (Template:Lang-it) in the Adriatic under their Yugoslav designations, and were fitted with two 76 mm (3.0 in) L/30 anti-aircraft guns in place of their 66 mm (2.6 in) guns, but no other significant alterations were made to them. After the Italians capitulated in September 1943, they transferred T1 back to the KJRM-in-exile in December of that year. T3 was seized by the Germans at Rijeka on 16 September 1943 and was renamed TA48. She was commissioned on 15 August 1944, and was used for patrol and escort work in the northern Adriatic. The Germans added to her armament, fitting her with two single 20 mm (0.79 in) anti-aircraft guns in addition to the guns fitted by the Italians, and removing two of her torpedo tubes. She was either crewed exclusively by Croatian officers and sailors but remained under German control, or was transferred to the Croatian navy but then repossessed by the Germans on 14 December 1944 due to the unreliable nature of the Croatian navy. Her complement was also increased to 52 during her German/Croatian service. She was sunk in the port of Trieste by Allied aircraft on 20 February 1945.

T5 was also returned to the KJRM-in-exile in December 1943. T6 was scuttled by the Italians 30 km (19 mi) north of Rimini on 11 September as she had insufficient fuel on board to reach an Allied port. Once under German control, T7 was also handed over to the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia, and served under her Yugoslav designation. Her crew came under the influence of the Yugoslav Partisans, and were preparing to mutiny when the Germans intervened. On 24 June 1944, she and the S-boats S 154 and S 157 of the 7th S-Boat Flotilla were sailing between Šibenik and Rijeka, protecting German sea supply routes along the Adriatic when they were attacked by the Royal Navy Fairmile D motor torpedo boats MTB 659, MTB 662 and MTB 670 near the island of Kukuljari, south of Murter Island. The MTBs fired two torpedoes at T7, but missed, so they closed and engaged her with their guns, setting her ablaze. She was beached, and 21 crew were rescued by the MTBs. The British crews later examined the wreck, capturing five more crew, then destroyed her with demolition charges. T8 was sunk 37 km (23 mi) north-west of Dubrovnik by German aircraft while evacuating Italian troops from Dalmatia on 10 or 11 September 1943.

Post-World War II

Only four of the twenty-seven 250t-class torpedo boats survived World War II, two in Yugoslav service and two in Soviet service. T1 was commissioned by the Yugoslav Navy after the war as Golešnica. She was re-armed with two 40 mm (1.6 in) guns on single mounts and four 20 mm (0.79 in) guns, and her torpedo tubes were removed. She continued in Yugoslav service under that name until October 1959. T5 was also commissioned by the Yugoslav Navy after the war, and renamed Cer. She was fitted with two 40 mm (1.6 in) guns on single mounts and one 20 mm (0.79 in) gun, and her torpedo tubes were also removed. She served until 1962, when she was broken up. Musson and Toros were returned to Romania in October 1945, and stricken the following month.

References

Books

• Bell, Christopher; Elleman, Bruce (2004). Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century: An International Perspective. London, England: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-75553-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Brescia, Maurizio (2012). Mussolini's Navy. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59114-544-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Brown, David (1995). Warship Losses of World War Two. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-55750-914-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Cernuschi, Enrico; O'Hara, Vincent P. (2014). "Action off Pelagosa". In Tucker, Spencer C. (ed.). World War I: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-965-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Chesneau, Roger, ed. (1980). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1922–1946. London, England: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 978-0-85177-146-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Compton-Hall, Richard (1991). Submarines and the War at Sea, 1914–18. London, England: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-44345-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Gardiner, Robert, ed. (1985). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1906–1921. London, England: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 978-0-85177-245-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Gardiner, Robert, ed. (1983). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1947–1982. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-919-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Greger, René (1976). Austro-Hungarian Warships of World War I. London, England: Allan. ISBN 978-0-7110-0623-2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Halpern, Paul G., ed. (1987). The Royal Navy in the Mediterranean, 1915–1918. Aldershot, England: Temple Smith, Gower Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-566-05488-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Halpern, Paul G. (2004). The Battle of the Otranto Straits: Controlling the Gateway to the Adriatic in World War I. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-11019-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Halpern, Paul G. (2012). A Naval History of World War I. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-266-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hathaway, Jane (2001). Rebellion, Repression, Reinvention: Mutiny in Comparative Perspective. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-97010-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Jane's Information Group (1989) [1946/47]. Jane's Fighting Ships of World War II. London, England: Studio Editions. ISBN 978-1-85170-194-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Lenton, H.T. (1975). German Warships of the Second World War. London, England: Macdonald and Jane's. ISBN 978-0-356-04661-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Monakov, Mikhail; Rohwer, Jurgen (2001). Stalin's Ocean-going Fleet: Soviet Naval Strategy and Shipbuilding Programs, 1935–53. Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass. ISBN 978-1-136-32191-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• O'Hara, Vincent; Worth, Richard; Dickson, W. (2013). To Crown the Waves: The Great Navies of the First World War. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-61251-269-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Paterson, Lawrence (2015). Schnellboote: A Complete Operational History. Barnsley, England: Seaforth Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84832-083-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sieche, Erwin F. (1991). "S.M.S. Szent István: Hungaria's Only and Ill-Fated Dreadnought". Warship International. XXVII (2). Toledo, Ohio: International Warship Research Organization: 112–146. ISSN 0043-0374. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Smillie, John (2012). World War II Sea War, Vol 4: Germany Sends Russia to the Allies. Dayton, Ohio: Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-937470-03-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sokol, Anthony Eugene (1968). The Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Navy. Annapolis, Maryland: U.S. Naval Institute. OCLC 1912. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sondhaus, Lawrence (1994). The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867–1918: Navalism, Industrial Development, and the Politics of Dualism. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-034-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Terzić, Velimir (1982). Slom Kraljevine Jugoslavije 1941: Uzroci i posledice poraza (in Serbo-Croatian). Vol. 2. Belgrade, Yugoslavia: Narodna knjiga. OCLC 10276738. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
• Weal, John (1998). Junkers Ju 87 Stukageschwader of North Africa and the Mediterranean. Oxford, England: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-85532-722-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Whitley, M. J. (1988). Destroyers of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-326-7. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Willmott, H. P. (2010). The Last Century of Sea Power: From Washington to Tokyo, 1922–1945. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35214-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Websites

• Niehorster, Dr. Leo (2013a). "Balkan Operations Order of Battle Royal Yugoslavian Navy Coastal Defense Command 6th April 1941". World War II Armed Forces: Orders of Battle and Organizations. Dr. Leo Niehorster. Retrieved 18 April 2015. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Niehorster, Dr. Leo (2013b). "Balkan Operations Order of Battle Royal Yugoslavian Navy 6th April 1941". World War II Armed Forces: Orders of Battle and Organizations. Dr. Leo Niehorster. Retrieved 18 April 2015. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)