Historian Philip J. Deloria has noted that European Americans "playing Indian" is a phenomenon that stretches back at least as far as the Boston Tea Party.[13] In his 1998 book Playing Indian, Deloria argues that white settlers have always played with stereotypical imagery of the peoples that were replaced during colonization, using these tropes to form a new national identity that can be seen as distinct from previous European identities.
The academic Joel W. Martin noted that "an astonishing number of southerners assert they have a grandmother or great-grandmother who was some kind of Cherokee, often a princess", and that such myths serve settler purposes in aligning American frontier romance with southern regionalism and pride.[18]
Post-1960s: Rise of pretendians in academia, arts and political positions
The rise of pretendian identities post-1960s can be explained by a number of factors. The reestablishment and exercise of tribal sovereignty among tribal nations (following the era of Indian termination policy) meant that many individuals raised away from tribal communities sought, and still seek, to reestablish their status as tribal citizens or to recover connections to tribal traditions. Other tribal citizens, who had been raised in American Indian boarding schools under genocidal policies designed to erase their cultural identity, also revived tribal religious and cultural practices.
At the same time, in the years following the Occupation of Alcatraz, the formation of Native American studies as a distinct form of area studies, and the awarding of the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction to Kiowa author N. Scott Momaday, publishing programs and university departments began to be established specifically for or about Native American culture. At the same time, hippie and New Age cultures marketed Native cultures as accessible, spiritual, and as a form of resistance to mainstream culture, leading to the rise of the plastic shaman or "culture vulture." All of this added up to a culture that was not inclined to disbelieve self-identification, and a wider societal impulse to claim Indigeneity.[19]
Elizabeth Cook-Lynn wrote of the influence of pretendians in academia and political positions:
[U]nscrupulous scholars in the discipline who had no stake in Native nationhood but who had achieved status in academia and held on to it through fraudulent claims to lndian Nation heritage and blood directed the discourse. This phenomenon took place following the "lndian Preference" regulations in new hiring practices at the Bureau of lndian Affairs in the early 1970s. Sometimes unprepared for such outright aggression or suffering polarization from the conflicts in the system, Native scholars in the academy often seemed to be silent witnesses to such occurrences. Their silence has not meant complicity. It has meant, more than anything, a feeling of utter powerlessness within the structures of strong mainstream institutions.[19]
By 1990, as noted in The New York Times Magazine, many years of "significant pushback by Native Americans against so-called Pretendians or Pretend Indians" resulted in the successful passage of the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990 (IACA) - a truth-in-advertising law which prohibits misrepresentation in marketing of American Indian or Alaska Native arts and crafts products within the United States.[2] The IACA makes it illegal for non-Natives to offer or display for sale, or sell, any art or craft product in a manner that falsely suggests it is Indian produced, an Indian product, or the product of a particular Indian or Indian Tribe or Indian arts and crafts organization. For a first-time violation of the Act, an individual can face civil or criminal penalties up to a $250,000 fine or a five-year prison term, or both. If a business violates the Act, it can face civil penalties or can be prosecuted and fined up to $1,000,000.[20]
We ... have had to contend with an onslaught of what we call 'Pretendians', that is, non-Indigenous people assuming a Native identity. DNA tests are setting up other problems involving those who discover Native DNA [sic] in their bloodline. When individuals assert themselves as Native when they are not culturally Indigenous, and if they do not understand their tribal nation's history or participate in their tribal nation's society, who benefits? Not the people or communities of the identity being claimed. It is hard to see this as anything other than an individual's capitalist claim, just another version of a colonial offense.[21]
While Harjo refers to "Native DNA", there is no DNA test that can reliably confirm Native American ancestry, and no DNA test can indicate tribal origin.[22][23][24] Attempts by non-Natives to racialize Indigenous identity by DNA tests have been seen by Indigenous people as insensitive at best, often racist, politically and financially motivated, and dangerous to the survival of Indigenous cultures.[25][a]
While Indigenous communities have always self-policed and spread word of frauds, mainstream media and arts communities were often unaware, or did not act upon this information, until more recent decades.[8] However, since the 1990s and 2000s, a number of controversies regarding ethnic fraud have come to light and received coverage in mainstream media, leading to a broader awareness of pretendians in the world at large.[2][4][8]
Pretendians perpetuate the myth that Native identity is determined by the individual, not the tribe or community, directly undermining tribal sovereignty and Native self-determination. To protect the rights of Indigenous people, pretendians like Wages and Warren must be challenged and the retelling of their false narratives must be stopped.[31]
In January 2021, Navajo journalist Jacqueline Keeler began investigating the problem of settler self-indigenization in academia.[32] Working with other Natives in tribal enrollment departments, genealogists and historians, they began following up on the names many had been hearing for years in tribal circles were not actually Native, asking about current community connections as well as researching family histories "as far back as the 1600s" to see if they had any ancestors who were Native or had ever lived in a tribal community.[32] This research resulted in the Alleged Pretendians List,[33] of about 200 public figures in academia and entertainment, which Keeler self-published as a Google spreadsheet in 2021.[34]
While some people have criticized her for "conducting a witch hunt", Native leaders interviewed by VOA, such as Shawnee Chief Ben Barnes, report Keeler has strong support in Native circles.[32] Academic Dina Gilio-Whitaker, who reviewed Keeler’s documentation on Sacheen Littlefeather before it was published (see below), wrote that in her opinion Keeler did solid research.[35] Keeler has stressed that the list does not include private citizens who are "merely wannabes", but only those public figures who are monetizing and profiting from their claims to tribal identity and who claim to speak for Native American tribes.[34] She says the list is the product of decades of Native peoples' efforts at accountability.[32] Academic Kim TallBear writes that all those mentioned on the list are public figures who have profited from their alleged Indigenous status, that Keeler’s and her team’s list documents that the overwhelming number of those who benefit financially from pretendianism are white, and that these false claims are related to white supremacy and Indigenous erasure. Tallbear stresses that people who fabricate fraudulent claims are in no way the same as disconnected and reconnecting descendants who have real heritage, such as victims of government programs that scooped Indigenous children from their families.[36]
On September 13, 2021, the CBC News reported on their ongoing investigation into a "mysterious letter", dated 1845 (but never seen before 2011[37]) that is now believed to be a forgery. Based solely on the one ancestor listed in this letter, over 1,000 people were enrolled as Algonquin people, making them "potential beneficiaries of a massive pending land claim agreement involving almost $1 billion and more than 500 sq. kilometres of land".[4] The CBC investigation used handwriting analysis, and other methods of archival and historical evaluation to conclude the letter is a fake. This has led to the federally recognized Pikwakanagan First Nation to renew efforts to remove these "pretendian" claimants from their membership. In a statement to CBC News, the chief and council of the Algonquins of Pikwakanagan First Nation say that those they are seeking to remove "are fraudulently taking up Indigenous spaces in high academia and procurement opportunities."[4]
In October 2021, the CBC published an investigation into the status of Canadian academic Carrie Bourassa, who works as an Indigenous health expert and has claimed Métis, Anishinaabe and Tlingit status.[38] Research into her claims indicated that her ancestry is wholly European. In particular, the great-grandmother she claimed was Tlingit, Johanna Salaba, is well-documented as having emigrated from Russia in 1911; she was a Czech-speaking Russian.[38] In response, Bourassa admitted that she does not have status in the communities that she claimed but insisted that she does have some Indigenous ancestors and that she has hired other genealogists to search for them.[38] Bourassa was placed on immediate leave from her post at the Canadian Institutes of Health Research after her claims of Indigenous ancestry were found to be baseless.[39]
in November 2021, writing for the Toronto Star about the Bourassa situation as well as the actions of Joseph Boyden and Michelle Latimer, K.J. McCusker wrote,
We have been so heavily affected by stolen identities that the word “pretendian” has become a colloquially used term.
Stolen identities undermine us to the point where we end up fodder for the tabloids the likes of Daily Mail. We become a spectacle for those who at best think of us as a Halloween costume idea. To people like Bourassa, we are indeed a costume, except one you get to wear all year long and benefit from professionally because it checks that box that was created to even-out the field that cannot ever be evened out just by a box.[5]
In October 2022, actor and activist Sacheen Littlefeather died. Shortly thereafter her sisters spoke to Navajo reporter Jacqueline Keeler and said that their family has no ties to the Apache or Yaqui tribes Sacheen had claimed.[40] As Littlefeather had been a beloved activist, these reports were met with controversy, challenges, and attacks on Keeler, largely on social media.[41] Academic Dina Gilio-Whitaker wrote that the truth about community leaders is "crucial", even if it means losing a "hero", and that the work Littlefeather did is still valuable, but we need to be honest about the harm done by pretendians, even and perhaps especially by those who manage to fool so many people that they become iconic:[35]
The stereotype Littlefeather embodied depended on non-Native people not knowing what they were looking at, or knowing what constitutes legitimate American Indian identity. There is a pattern that "pretendians" follow: They exploit people’s lack of knowledge about who American Indian people are by perpetuating ambiguity in a number of ways. Self-identification, or even DNA tests, for instance, obscure the fact that American Indians have not only a cultural relationship to a specific tribe and the United States but a legal one. Pretendians rarely can name any people they are related to in a Native community or in their family tree. They also just blatantly lie. Pretendianism is particularly prevalent in entertainment, publishing and academia.[35]
Motivating factors
There are several possible explanations for why people adopt pretendian identities. Mnikȟówožu Lakota poet Trevino Brings Plenty writes: "To wear an underrepresented people's skin is enticing. I get it: to feast on struggle, to explore imagined roots; to lay the foundational work for academic jobs and publishing opportunities."[9]
Patrick Wolfe argues that the problem is more structural, stating that settler colonial ideology actively needs to erase and then reproduce Indigenous identity in order to create and justify claims to land and territory.[42]Deloria also explores the white American dual fascination with "the vanishing Indian" and the idea that, by "Playing Indian", the white man can then be the true inheritor and preserver of authentic American identity and connection to the land, aka "Indianness".[43]
Quite often this seems to be a cynical ploy towards some kind of anti-Indigenous political programme, as Darryl Leroux and others have demonstrated quite convincingly and handily regarding the explosion of groups in eastern Ontario, Québec, the Maritimes and parts of New England (2019) where quite often the absolutely astronomical growth in new claimants of Indigeneity can be clearly traced back to white supremacist, anti-Native, political projects in opposition to Aboriginal and Treaty rights. The assumption of Indigenous identity, through the growth of the so-called “Eastern Métis” movement, is clearly, at least in terms of its foundational leadership and organizational nature, antagonistic at a fundamental level towards Indigenous peoples and livelihoods.[45]
Who are these people? In the academy and government, they are mostly white women. In the hunting and fishing realm, they are mostly white men. ... What these claims have in common is that they are entirely disconnected from any living Indigenous people.[47]
Why do they do it? Indigenous impersonation is not an accident. People do it to get something they want – to stop Indigenous people from closing a land claim, to access hunting and fishing rights, or to gain access to jobs. And the payoff is well worth it. Imposters in the academy gain six-figure jobs, prestige, grants and tenure in exchange for a few lies. This kind of impersonation can only be carried out by those with immense privilege. It takes a person with enough knowledge of the gaps in the system to exploit them. It is also another colonial act. If colonialism has not eradicated Indigenous people by starvation, residential schools, the reserve system, taking their lands and languages, scooping their children, and doing everything to assimilate Indigenous peoples, then the final act is to become them. It’s a perverse kind of reverse assimilation.[47]
Notable examples
Individuals who have been accused of being a pretendian include:
Academic
Ward Churchill (born 1947)[49][50][51] – A professor of ethnic studies and political activist, Churchill built his career on his claims of Indigenous identity that were unsupported by membership in any tribe or by later genealogical research that failed to find any evidence of Indigenous ancestry.
Rachel Dolezal (born 1977)[52][53] – Although Dolezal is better known for claiming to be African-American, she began her career claiming to be Native American, telling people that she was born in a tipi and grew up hunting for food with bows and arrows.[53]
Jessica Yaniv (born 1986/1987)[54] – Despite being a first generation Canadian to parents, both of Ashkenazic background, Yaniv-Simpson has at times self-identified as being Indigenous Canadian. Yaniv-Simpson has used this claim to receive preferential priority[55] to obtain Covid-19 vaccinations during a period when vaccines were being rationed to vulnerable groups as well as an attempt to advance her political causes.[56]
Susan Taffe Reed[57] – Former director of Dartmouth College's Native American Program. Fired in 2015 "after tribal officials and alumni accused her of misrepresenting herself as an American Indian".[58]
Andrea Smith[2][59][60][61][62] – Smith has built a career as a scholar, author and activist based on her claim that she is a Cherokee woman. Despite many articles and statements by Cherokee people and genealogists stating she has no Cherokee heritage or citizenship, she has never retracted her claim.
Terry Tafoya[63] – Now going by the name Ty Nolan. A former psychology professor at Evergreen State College, claimed Warm Springs and Taos Pueblo heritage. False claims reported by the Seattle Post Intelligencer in 2006.
Film and television
Iron Eyes Cody and Roy Rogers in North of the Great Divide, 1950Kelsey Asbille (born 1991)[64] – A Chinese-American actress who has been cast in numerous Native American roles. She has falsely claimed descent from the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI) and a "Cherokee identity".[65] In response, the EBCI issued a statement that "Kelsey Asbille (Chow) is not now nor has she ever been an enrolled member of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. No documentation was found in our records to support any claim that she descends from the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.”[66][67][68]
"Iron Eyes" Cody (1904–1999)[69][70] – Born as Espera Oscar de Corti, and came to be known as "The Crying Indian". An Italian-American actor most well known for his appearance in a 1970's anti-littering commercial. Cody pretended to be from various tribes and denied his Italian heritage for the rest of his life.
Sacheen Littlefeather (1946–2022)[35] – Born Maria Louise Cruz, an actress who took the stage in Plains-style attire at the Academy Awards to decline the 1972 Best Actor award on behalf of Marlon Brando for The Godfather. Presenting herself throughout her life as a White Mountain Apache and Yaqui activist for Native American rights who had grown up in a hovel without a toilet, her sisters and others later said her heritage was actually half–Mexican-Hispanic of Spanish-European descent and half white.[40] An investigation by the Navajo writer-activist Jacqueline Keeler and her team, and reviewed by academics prior to publication, revealed no apparent ties to any tribe in the United States.[40][41][35]
Literary
Grey Owl (Archibald Stansfeld Belaney) feeding a Swiss roll to a beaver.
Joseph Boyden (born 1966)[74][75][10] – A novelist of Irish and Scottish ancestry best known for writing about First Nations culture who has no recognized tribal membership and whose familial and DNA-based claims to Indigenous ancestry have failed efforts at verification and were summarized by his ex-wife as "no DNA that can be traced to the First Nations people in Canada or the Americas at large".
Grey Owl (1888–1938)[7][16][17] – An Englishman born as Archibald Stansfeld Belaney who became a woodsman and wrote books and gave lectures as an activist primarily on environmental and conservationism issues, but was exposed after his death as having falsely claimed his Indigenous identity.
Jamake Highwater (1931–2001)[78][79][80] – A prolific American writer and journalist born as Jackie Marks who passed as Cherokee and used Native American culture as his writing theme although he was actually of eastern European Jewish ancestry.
Chief Buffalo Child Long Lance (1890–1932)[81] – The persona of the African-American journalist, writer and film actor Sylvester Clark Long, who falsely claimed Blackfoot and Cherokee heritage.
Nasdijj (born 1950)[82][83][84] – The pseudonym of writer Tim Barrus, an American author and social worker best known for having published three "memoirs" between 2000 and 2004 while presenting himself as a Navajo.
Red Thunder Cloud (1919–1996)[85] – Born Cromwell Ashbie Hawkins West, also known as Carlos Westez, a singer, dancer, storyteller, and field researcher who was promoted as the last fluent speaker of the Catawba language, but was later revealed to have learned what little he knew of the language from books and to have been of African American heritage.
Sat-Okh (1920–2003), also known as Stanisław Supłatowicz, was a writer, artist, and soldier who served during World War II, that claimed to be of Polish and Shawnee descent. His origins were heavily disputed.[86]
Margaret Seltzer (born 1975)[87][88] – The writer of a "memoir" of her supposed experiences as a half–Native American foster child and gang member in South Central Los Angeles and was later revealed to have completely fabricated the story after growing up in an affluent neighborhood with no Native American background or heritage.
Danielle Smith - Premier of Alberta who claimed to have a Cherokee great-great-grandmother who was a victim of the Trail of Tears. An investigation from APTN National News found no evidence Smith's ancestors were Indigenous or part of the Trail of Tears.[94]
Elizabeth Warren (born 1949) – A U.S. Senator and presidential candidate who claimed Cherokee and Delaware ancestry. She attempted to support her claim by releasing a video with DNA analysis, but her DNA claims were rejected by the Cherokee Nation,[95] with then Cherokee Nation Secretary of State, Chuck Hoskin Jr. (now Principal Chief of the Nation) stating in a press release in response, "Using a DNA test to lay claim to any connection to the Cherokee Nation or any tribal nation, even vaguely, is inappropriate and wrong."[96] Warren eventually expressed regret and apologized for "claiming American Indian heritage".[97][98][99]
Jimmie Durham (1940–2021)[61][107] – An artist and activist who claimed one-quarter Cherokee descent by blood and to have grown up in a Cherokee-speaking community, Durham exhibited his work in the U.S. as Native American art until the passage of the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990 prohibiting false claims of Native production of arts and crafts that are offered for sale; he subsequently left the United States and has continued to claim Cherokee identity in European exhibitions. He was also formerly an organizer and central committee member for the American Indian Movement, including working as chief administrator for the International Indian Treaty Council. However, he has been reported to have "no known ties to any Cherokee community" and to be "neither enrolled nor eligible for citizenship" in any of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes.
Yeffe Kimball (1906–1978)[108] – An artist who claimed to be Osage. Born Effie Goodman, she made Native American art under her assumed identify but also engaged in Native American political activism.
Cheyanne Turions[109][110] – An artist and art curator who claimed an Indigenous Canadian identity for grant applications until "outed" in 2021, Turions later stated that she had investigated her family's history and that as a result "I changed my self-identification to settler," and resigned from her position as a curator.[111]
^While there are some genetic markers that are more common among Native Americans, these markers are also found in Asia, and in other parts of the world.[26] The commercial DNA companies that offer ethnicity tests do not have a large enough pool of North American DNA to provide reliable matches. The most popular companies have admitted to having no North American DNA, and that their "matches" are to Central Asian and South or Central American populations; smaller companies may have a very small pool from one tribe who participated in a medical study.[27][28][29] The exploitation of Indigenous genetic material, like the theft of human remains, land and artifacts, has led to widespread distrust to outright boycotts of these companies by Native communities.[28][29] While a DNA test may bring up some markers associated with some Indigenous or Asian populations (and the science there is fairly problematic, as TallBear describes in her book Native American DNA), as Indigenous identity is based in citizenship, family and community, a genetic marker does not make a person Indigenous.[23]
^ abcdViren, Sarah (May 25, 2021). "The Native Scholar Who Wasn't". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on May 27, 2021. Retrieved December 27, 2021. the 1990s saw the beginning of what would eventually be significant pushback by Native Americans against so-called Pretendians or Pretend Indians
^ abRobinson, Rowland (2020). "4. Interlude: Community, Pretendians, & Heartbreak". Settler Colonialism + Native Ghosts: An Autoethnographic Account of the Imaginarium of Late Capitalist/Colonialist Storytelling (Phd.). [Waterloo, Ontario] : University of Waterloo. p. 235. OCLC1263615440. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved December 28, 2021. [The] phenomenon of what I and many other Indigenous people have for some time called Pretendians, as well as the related, and very often overlapping, phenomenon of Fétis*. This not-new phenomenon, to put it perhaps overly simply, is the practice of settler individuals (and sometimes others, but primarily settlers) putting forth a false Indigenous identity, and placing themselves out in front of the world as Indigenous people, and sometimes even attempting to assert themselves in some way as a kind of voice of their supposed peoples. *Portmanteaus of "Pretend" and "Indian" and "Fake" and "Métis", respectively. Pretendian, as a descriptive term, has been around most of my life, to the extent that I am not sure that placing its origin on the timeline is readily possible.
^ abcdRidgen, Melissa (January 28, 2021). "Pretendians and what to do with people who falsely say they're Indigenous". APTN News. Archived from the original on July 13, 2021. Retrieved July 13, 2021. Pretendians – noun – A person who falsely claims to have Indigenous ancestry – meaning it's people who fake an Indigenous identity or dig up an old ancestor from hundreds of years ago to proclaim themselves as Indigenous today. They take up a lot of space and income from First Nation, Inuit and Metis Peoples.
^Leroux, Darryl. "Raceshifting". Raceshifting. Archived from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved July 8, 2021.
^Leroux, Darryl R. J.; Gaudry, Adam (October 25, 2017). "Becoming Indigenous: The rise of Eastern Métis in Canada". The Conversation. Retrieved November 5, 2022. In 2011 there were over 250 self-identified Cherokee "tribes" in the U.S., according to anthropologist Circe Sturm. Like efforts by self-identified Métis, Sturm suggests that "race shifting" among white Americans to Cherokee identity is an attempt to "reclaim or create something they feel they have lost, and … to opt out of mainstream white society." The end result, however, has been the proliferation of self-identified Cherokee "tribes" in the U.S. and "Métis commmunities" in Eastern Canada with minimal connections to Indigenous peoples who they claim as long-ago ancestors.
^Laura Browder, " 'One Hundred Percent American': How a Slave, a Janitor, and a Former Klansmen Escaped Racial Categories by Becoming Indians", in Beyond the Binary: Reconstructing Cultural Identity in a Multicultural Context, ed. Timothy B. Powell, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press (1999)
^Micco, Melinda (2000). "Tribal Re-Creations: Buffalo Child Long Lance and Black Seminole Narratives". In Hsu, Ruth; Franklin, Cynthia; Kosanke, Suzanne (eds.). Re-placing America: Conversations and Contestations. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i and the East-West Center.
^ abSmith, Donald B. (1990). From the Land of Shadows: the Making of Grey Owl. Saskatoon: Western Prairie Books.
^Martin, Joel W. (1996). Bird, Elizabeth (ed.). 'My Grandmother Was a Cherokee Princess': Representations of Indians in Southern History. London: Routledge. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ abElizabeth Cook-Lynn. "Who Stole Native American Studies?" Wíčazo Ša Review, Vol. 12, No. 1. (Spring, 1997), p. 23.
^Harjo, Joy (2020). "Introduction". In Harjo, Joy; Howe, Leanne; Foerster, Jennifer (eds.). When the Light of the World Was Subdued Our Songs Came Through: A Norton Anthology of Native Nations Poetry. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 4. ISBN9780393356816. Archived from the original on March 22, 2022. Retrieved December 30, 2021.
^Wolfe, Patrick (2006) Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native, Journal of Genocide Research, 8:4, 387-409, DOI: 10.1080/14623520601056240
^Jacqueline Keeler (January 28, 2021). Pretendians and what to do with people who falsely say they're Indigenous(Television broadcast). Interviewed by Ridgen, Melissa. Winnipeg: APTN News. Event occurs at 13:47. Archived from the original on July 13, 2021. Retrieved November 18, 2022. White people are so accustomed, they are centered by white supremacy to such an extent they feel no compunction about doing this ... maybe even they covet what we have and they feel we don't deserve it. And so they decide they can perform the identity better than we can. And they can - for a white audience. ... White people like to see other white people in redface.
^Pember, Mary Annettee (January 25, 2007). "Ethnic Fraud?". Diverse: Issues in Higher Education. 23 (25): 20–23. Archived from the original on December 27, 2018. Retrieved October 31, 2022.
^Breznican, Anthony (May 8, 2011). "Johnny Depp on 'The Lone Ranger'". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on July 8, 2015. Retrieved August 8, 2011. My great grandmother was quite a bit of Native American, she grew up Cherokee or maybe Creek Indian. Makes sense in terms of coming from Kentucky, which is rife with Cherokee and Creek.
^Goddard, Ives (2000). "The Identity of Red Thunder Cloud"(PDF). The Newsletter -- Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas. 19 (1): 7–10. Archived(PDF) from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved December 21, 2021.
^Anthes, Bill. "Becoming Indian: The Self-Invention of Yeffe Kimball." Native Moderns: American Indian Painting, 1940–1960. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006: 117–141. ISBN0-8223-3866-1.
^turions, cheyanne (April 19, 2021). "Uncategorized". CHEYANNE TURIONS – Dialogue around curatorial practice. Archived from the original on November 8, 2021. Retrieved November 9, 2021.
Tuck, Eve; Yang, K. Wayne. "Decolonization is not a metaphor". Moves to Innocence I: Settler Nativism, pp. 10–13. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 2012.
External links
Look up pretendian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Raceshifting, resource on Eastern Euro-Canadians and Euro-Americans posting as Indigenous peoples
Unsettling Genealogies Conference - A Forum on Pseudo Indians, Race-Shifting, Pretendians, and Self-Indigenization in Media, Arts, Politics and the Academy - Series of 8 panel presentations in Spring, 2022, at Michigan State University.
.jpg)
