View source for Kosovo

{{Short description|Country in Southeast Europe}}
{{Redirect|Kosova|other uses|Kosovo (disambiguation)|and|Kosova (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Kosovo
| native_name            = {{unbulleted list|item_style=font-size:85%;|{{native name|sq|Republika e Kosovës}}|{{lang|sr-Cyrl|Република Косово}} / {{native name|sr-Latn|Republika Kosovo}}}}
| common_name            = Kosovo
| image_flag             = Flag of Kosovo.svg
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of Kosovo.svg
| symbol                 = Emblem of Kosovo
| symbol_type            = Emblem
| image_map              = Europe-Republic of Kosovo.svg
| map_caption            = Location of Kosovo (green)
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = Himni i Republikës së Kosovës<br />"[[Anthem of the Republic of Kosovo]]"{{center|[[File:National_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_Kosovo.ogg]]}}
| official_languages     = [[Albanian language|Albanian]]<br />[[Serbian language|Serbian]]<ref name="bein12"/>
| languages2_type        = Regional languages
| languages2             = {{hlist|[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]|[[Turkish language|Turkish]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Municipal language compliance in Kosovo|url=https://www.osce.org/kosovo/120010?download=true|publisher=OSCE Minsk Group|quote=Turkish language is currently official in Prizren and Mamuşa/Mamushë/Mamuša municipalities. In 2007 and 2008, the municipalities of Gjilan/Gnjilane, southern Mitrovicë/Mitrovica, Prishtinë/Priština and Vushtrri/Vučitrn also recognized Turkish as a language in official use.|access-date=17 February 2021|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305035807/http://www.osce.org/kosovo/120010?download=true|url-status=live}}</ref>|[[Romani language|Romani]]}}
| ethnic_groups_ref      = <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/kosovo-population/ |title=Kosovo Population 2019 |work=World Population Review |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728020418/http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/kosovo-population/ |archive-date=28 July 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2019
| ethnic_groups          = {{unbulleted list|92% [[Kosovo Albanians|Albanians]]|4% [[Serbs of Kosovo|Serbs]]|2% [[Bosniaks in Kosovo|Bosniaks]]|1% [[Turks in Kosovo|Turks]]|1% [[Romani people in Kosovo|Romani]]}}
| demonym                = {{unbulleted list|Kosovar, Kosovan}}
| capital                = {{nowrap|[[Pristina]]}}<sup>a</sup>
| status                 = {{unbulletedlist|[[International recognition of Kosovo|Recognised as independent by 104 out of {{UNnum}} member states]] of the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|date=1 February 2021|title=Israel's ties with Kosovo: What new opportunities await?|url=https://www.jpost.com/opinion/israels-ties-with-kosovo-what-new-opportunities-await-657476|access-date=8 February 2021|archive-date=7 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207154341/https://www.jpost.com/opinion/israels-ties-with-kosovo-what-new-opportunities-await-657476|url-status=live}}</ref>|Claimed by [[Serbia]] as the [[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija]]}}
| coordinates            = {{Coord|42|40|N|21|10|E|type:city(1,900,000)}}
| largest_city           = capital
| government_type        = [[Unitary parliamentary republic]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of Kosovo|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Vjosa Osmani]]
| leader_title2          = [[Prime Minister of Kosovo|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2           = [[Albin Kurti]]
| leader_title3          = [[Speaker of the Assembly of Kosovo|Speaker of the Assembly]]
| leader_name3           = [[Glauk Konjufca]]
| legislature            = [[Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo|Assembly]]
| area_km2               = 10,887<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18328859 |title = Kosovo profile |date = 28 Jun 2023 |website = BBC |access-date = 12 Sep 2023 |archive-date = 27 September 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230927133550/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18328859 |url-status = live }}</ref>
| area_rank              = 
| area_sq_mi             = 4,212
| percent_water          = 1.0<ref>{{cite web|title=Water percentage in Kosovo (Facts about Kosovo; 2011 Agriculture Statistics)|url=http://ask.rks-gov.net/|publisher=Kosovo Agency of Statistics, KAS|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829035712/http://ask.rks-gov.net/|archive-date=29 August 2017}}</ref>
| population_census    = {{DecreaseNeutral}} 1,586,659<ref name="PreliminaryCensus2024">{{cite web |url=https://askapi.rks-gov.net/Custom/1d268e37-5934-4bd5-bbd1-34a9965cff92.pdf |title=Regjistrimi i popullsisë, ekonomive familjare dhe banesave në Kosovë - Rezultatet paraprake korrik 2024 |language=Albanian |trans-title=The census of population, families, and dwellings in Kosovo - Preliminary results July 2024 |publisher=Kosovo Statistics Agency |access-date=2024-07-12 }}</ref>
| population_estimate_rank =
| population_estimate_year =
| population_census_year = 2024
| population_density_km2 = 146
| population_density_sq_mi = 378
| GDP_PPP                            = {{increase}} $29.719 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.XK">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=967,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Kosovo) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=16 April 2024 |access-date=17 April 2024 |archive-date=17 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240417200539/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=967,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year                   = 2024
| GDP_PPP_rank                   = 148th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita          = {{increase}} $16,775<ref name="IMFWEO.XK" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 100th
| GDP_nominal                      = {{increase}} $11.318 billion<ref name="IMFWEO.XK" />
| GDP_nominal_year             = 2024
| GDP_nominal_rank             = 155th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita    = {{increase}} $6,389<ref name="IMFWEO.XK" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 104th
| Gini_year              = 2017
| Gini_change            = increase
| Gini                   = 29.0
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[World Bank]] |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate)–Kosovo |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=XK&name_desc=false |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-date=24 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124203818/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=XK&name_desc=false |url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI_year               = 2021
| HDI_change             = increase
| HDI                    = 0.762
| HDI_ref                = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Sub-national HDI - Area Database - Global Data Lab|url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/XKO/?levels=1%2B4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0&years=2019|website=hdi.globaldatalab.org|language=en|archive-date=29 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129215423/https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/XKO/?levels=1%2B4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0&years=2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 
| currency               = [[Euro]] ([[Euro sign|€]])<sup>b</sup>
| currency_code          = EUR
| time_zone              = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset             = +1
| time_zone_DST          = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| utc_offset_DST         = +2
| drives_on              = [[driving side|right]]
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Kosovo|+383]]
| iso3166code            = XK
| cctld                  = [[.xk]]<sup>c</sup> (proposed)
| established_event1     = [[Sanjak of Prizren]]
| established_date1      = 1455
| established_event2     = [[Kosovo Vilayet]]
| established_date2      = 1877
| established_event3     = [[Treaty of London (1913)|Treaty of London]]
| established_date3      = 1913
| established_event4     = [[Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo|Autonomous Province within Yugoslavia]]
| established_date4      = 31 January 1946
| established_event5     = [[Republic of Kosova]]
| established_date5      = 2 July 1990
| established_event6     = [[Kumanovo Agreement]]
| established_date6      = 9 June 1999
| established_event7     = [[United Nations Administered Kosovo|UN Administration]]
| established_date7      = 10 June 1999
| established_event8     = [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|Declaration of independence]]
| established_date8      = 17 February 2008
| established_event9     = [[International Steering Group for Kosovo|End of Steering Group supervision]]
| established_date9      = 10 September 2012
| established_event10     = [[Brussels Agreement (2013)|Brussels Agreement]]
| established_date10      = 19 April 2013
| footnote_a             = [[Pristina]] is the capital of Kosovo and its [[seat of government]].<ref>{{cite act |date=9 April 2008 |article= 13 |legislature=[[Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo]] |title=Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo|page= |url=http://old.kuvendikosoves.org/common/docs/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Kosovo_with_amend.I-XXV_2017.pdf}}</ref><ref name="capital">{{cite web |publisher=Gazeta Zyrtare e Republikës së Kosovës |title=Ligji Nr. 06/L-012 për Kryeqytetin e Republikës së Kosovës, Prishtinën |url=https://gzk.rks-gov.net/ActDetail.aspx?ActID=16506 |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924130927/https://gzk.rks-gov.net/ActDetail.aspx?ActID=16506 |archive-date=24 September 2020 |language=sq |date=6 June 2018}}</ref> A separate law recognises [[Prizren]] as the ''historic capital'' of Kosovo.<ref name="capital" />
| footnote_b             = The Euro is the official currency in Kosovo even though Kosovo is not a formal member of the [[eurozone]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/euro/use-euro/euro-outside-euro-area_en |title=The euro outside the euro area |work=Economy and Finance |publisher=European Commission |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128215012/https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/euro/use-euro/euro-outside-euro-area_en |archive-date=2024-01-28 |access-date=2024-01-28 }}</ref><ref>{{cite act |date=9 April 2008 |article= 11 |legislature=[[Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo]] |title=Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo|page= |url=http://old.kuvendikosoves.org/common/docs/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Kosovo_with_amend.I-XXV_2017.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://telegrafi.com/perfundon-periudha-transitore-nga-sot-euro-valuta-e-vetme-per-transaksione-ne-kosove/ |title=Përfundon periudha transitore: Nga sot, euro valuta e vetme për transaksione në Kosovë |language=Albanian |trans-title=The transitory period is over: from today euro is the only currency for transactions in Kosovo |work=[[Telegrafi]] |location=Prishtina |publisher=[[Telegrafi]] |date=2024-05-12 |access-date=2024-05-13 |archive-date=13 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513142936/https://telegrafi.com/perfundon-periudha-transitore-nga-sot-euro-valuta-e-vetme-per-transaksione-ne-kosove/ |url-status=live }}</ref> 
| footnote_c             = XK is a "user assigned" ISO 3166 code not designated by the standard, but used by the [[European Commission]], Switzerland, the [[Deutsche Bundesbank]] and other organisations. However, [[ISO 3166-2:RS|ISO 3166-2:RS-KM]] remains in use.
| today                  = 
| date_format            = [[date format|dd.mm.yyyy]]
| linking_name           = 
| religion               = {{unbulleted list|93% [[Islam in Kosovo|Islam]]|6% [[Christianity in Kosovo|Christianity]]|<1% [[Irreligion|no religion]]|<1% [[Religion in Kosovo|others]]}}
| religion_year          = 2020
| religion_ref           = <ref name="2022StateDeptReligion">{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kosovo/ |title=2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kosovo |publisher=U.S. Department of State |access-date=2023-10-15 |archive-date=27 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027211503/https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kosovo/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

'''Kosovo''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ɒ|s|ə|v|əʊ}} {{respell|KOSS|ə|voh}}; {{langx|sq|Kosova}} {{IPA|sq|kɔˈsɔva|}}; {{lang-sr-Cyrl|Косово}} {{IPA|sr|kôsovo|}}}} officially the '''Republic of Kosovo''',{{efn|{{langx|sq|Republika e Kosovës|links=no}}; {{langx|sr|Република Косово|Republika Kosovo|links=no}}}} is a [[landlocked country]] in [[Southeast Europe]] with [[international recognition of Kosovo|partial diplomatic recognition]]. It is bordered by [[Albania]] to the southwest, [[Montenegro]] to the west, [[Serbia]] to the north and east and [[North Macedonia]] to the southeast. It covers an area of {{Convert|10,887|km2|abbr=on}} and it has a population of approximately 1.6 million. Kosovo has a varied terrain, with high plains along with rolling hills and [[List of mountains in Kosovo|mountains]], some of which reach an altitude of over {{Convert|2500|m|abbr=on}}. Its climate is mainly [[Continental climate|continental]] with some [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] and [[Alpine climate|alpine]] influences.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kosovo Guidebook |url=https://eca.state.gov/files/bureau/kosovo-guidebook.pdf |website=eca.state.gov |access-date=20 September 2024}}</ref> Kosovo's capital and the [[List of cities and towns in Kosovo#List|most populous city]] is [[Pristina]]; other major cities and [[urban area]]s include [[Prizren]], [[Ferizaj]], [[Gjilan]] and [[Peja]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Population and housing census in Kosovo preliminary results - July 2024 |url=https://askapi.rks-gov.net/Custom/1d268e37-5934-4bd5-bbd1-34a9965cff92.pdf |access-date=21 July 2024}}</ref>

The [[Dardani]] tribe emerged in Kosovo and established the [[Kingdom of Dardania]] in the 4th century BC. It was later annexed by the [[Roman Empire]] in the 1st century BC. The territory remained in the [[Byzantine Empire]], facing Slavic migrations from the 6th-7th century AD. Control shifted between the Byzantines and the [[First Bulgarian Empire]]. In the 13th century, Kosovo became integral to the [[Serbia in the Middle Ages|Serbian medieval state]] and the seat of the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] was moved to Kosovo. [[Ottoman wars in Europe|Ottoman expansion]] in the Balkans in the late 14th and 15th century led to the decline and [[fall of the Serbian Empire]]; the [[Battle of Kosovo]] of 1389 is considered to be one of the defining moments, where a Serbian-led coalition consisting of various ethnicities fought against the Ottoman Empire.

Various dynasties, mainly the [[District of Branković|Branković]], would govern Kosovo for a significant portion of the period following the battle. The [[Ottoman Empire]] fully conquered Kosovo after the [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Second Battle of Kosovo]], ruling for nearly five centuries until 1912. Kosovo was the center of the [[Albanian National Awakening|Albanian Renaissance]] and experienced the [[Albanian revolt of 1910|Albanian revolts of 1910]] and [[Albanian revolt of 1912|1912]]. After the [[Balkan Wars]] (1912–1913), it was ceded to the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] and following World War II, it became an [[Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo|Autonomous Province]] within [[Yugoslavia]]. Tensions between Kosovo's Albanian and [[Kosovo Serbs|Serb]] communities simmered through the 20th century and occasionally erupted into major violence, culminating in the [[Kosovo War]] of 1998 and 1999, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Yugoslav army and the establishment of the [[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo]].

Kosovo [[unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally]]  [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|declared its independence]] from [[Serbia]] on 17 February 2008,<ref name="icj2020">{{cite web |publisher=[[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ) |title=Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/141/141-20100722-ADV-01-00-EN.pdf |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924140658/https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/141/141-20100722-ADV-01-00-EN.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2020 |date=22 July 2010}}</ref> and has since gained diplomatic recognition as a [[sovereign state]] by [[International recognition of Kosovo|104 member states]] of the [[United Nations]]. Although Serbia does not officially recognise Kosovo as a sovereign state and continues to claim it as its constituent [[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija]], it accepts the governing authority of the Kosovo institutions as a part of the [[Brussels Agreement (2013)|2013 Brussels Agreement]].<ref name=foreignaffairs>{{cite magazine |first=Nikolas K. |last=Gvosdev |title=Kosovo and Serbia Make a Deal |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kosovo/2013-04-24/kosovo-and-serbia-make-deal |date=24 April 2013 |magazine=Foreign Affairs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305041508/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/kosovo/2013-04-24/kosovo-and-serbia-make-deal |archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref>

Kosovo is a developing country, with an [[Economy of Kosovo|upper-middle-income economy]]. It has experienced solid [[International rankings of Kosovo|economic growth]] over the last decade as measured by international financial institutions since the onset of the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]]. Kosovo is a member of the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[World Bank]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]], [[Venice Commission]], the [[International Olympic Committee]], and has applied for membership in the [[Council of Europe]], [[UNESCO]], [[Interpol]], and for observer status in the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]. In December 2022, Kosovo filed [[Accession of Kosovo to the European Union|a formal application]] to become a member of the [[European Union]].<ref name="dw10"/>

== Etymology ==
{{Main|Names of Kosovo}}

The name ''Kosovo'' is of South Slavic origin. {{lang|sr-Latn|Kosovo}} ({{lang-sr-Cyrl|Косово|links=no}}) is the Serbian neuter possessive adjective of {{lang|sr-Latn|kos}} ({{lang|sr-Cyrl|кос}}), '[[Common blackbird|blackbird]]',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Judah |first1=Tim |title=Kosovo: What Everyone Needs to Know |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195373455 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UGwSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=15 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815174228/https://books.google.com/books?id=UGwSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Manić |editor1-first=Emilija |editor2-last=Nikitović |editor2-first=Vladimir |editor3-last=Djurović |editor3-first=Predrag |title=The Geography of Serbia: Nature, People, Economy |date=2021 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783030747015 |page=47 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPJQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-date=15 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815174228/https://books.google.com/books?id=BPJQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}</ref> an [[ellipsis (linguistics)|ellipsis]] for {{lang|sr-Latn|Kosovo Polje}}, 'Blackbird Field', the name of [[Kosovo field|a karst field]] situated in the eastern half of today's Kosovo and the site of the 1389 [[Battle of Kosovo|Battle of Kosovo Field]].<ref name="Everett-Heath2000">{{cite book |author=J. Everett-Heath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uK2HDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA373 |title=Place Names of the World - Europe: Historical Context, Meanings and Changes |date=1 August 2000 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0-230-28673-3 |pages=373– |access-date=13 August 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930143730/https://books.google.com/books?id=uK2HDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA373#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> The name of the karst field was for the first time applied to a wider area when the [[Kosovo vilayet|Ottoman Vilayet of Kosovo]] was created in 1877.

The entire territory that corresponds to today's country is commonly referred to in English simply as ''Kosovo'' and in [[Albanian language|Albanian]] as {{lang|sq|Kosova}} ([[Albanian grammar|definite form]]) or {{lang|sq|Kosovë}} (indefinite form, {{IPA|sq|kɔˈsɔvə|pron}}). In Serbia, a formal distinction is made between the eastern and western areas of the country; the term {{lang|sr-Latn|Kosovo}} ({{lang|sr-Cyrl|Косово}}) is used for the eastern part of Kosovo centred on the historical [[Kosovo field (region)|Kosovo Field]], while the western part of the territory of Kosovo is called ''[[Metohija]]'' ({{Langx|sq|Dukagjin|links=no}}). Thus, in Serbian the entire area of Kosovo is referred to as ''Kosovo and Metohija''.<ref name="constitution-serbia">{{cite web|url=http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/eng/akta/ustav/ustav_ceo.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127021637/http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/eng/akta/ustav/ustav_ceo.asp|archive-date=27 November 2010 |title=Constitution of the Republic of Serbia |publisher=Parlament.gov.rs |access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>

Dukagjini or Dukagjini plateau (Albanian: 'Rrafshi i Dukagjinit') is an alternative name for Western Kosovo, having been in use since the 15th-16th century as part of the [[Sanjak]] of [[Sanjak of İpek|Dukakin]] with its capital [[Peja]], and is named after the medieval Albanian [[Dukagjini family]].<ref name="Drançolli">{{cite web |last1=Drançolli |first1=Jahja |title=Illyrian-Albanian Continuity the Areal of Kosova |url=https://www.academia.edu/9304559 |website=academia.edu |access-date=11 February 2024 |archive-date=20 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231120230138/https://www.academia.edu/9304559 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Modern usage ===

Some Albanians also prefer to refer to Kosovo as [[Kingdom of Dardania|''Dardania'']], the name of an ancient kingdom and later [[Dardania (Roman province)|Roman province]], which covered the territory of modern-day Kosovo. The name is derived from the ancient tribe of the ''[[Dardani]]'', which is considered be related to the Proto-Albanian term ''dardā'', which means "pear" (Modern Albanian: {{Lang|sq|dardhë}}).<ref name="Everett-Heath2000" /><ref>Albanian Etymological Dictionary, V.Orel, Koninklijke Brill, Leiden Boston Köln 1998, p. 56</ref> The former Kosovo President [[Ibrahim Rugova]] had been an enthusiastic backer of a "Dardanian" identity, and the Kosovar presidential flag and seal refer to this national identity. However, the name "Kosova" remains more widely used among the Albanian population. The flag of Dardania remains in use as the official [[President of Kosovo|Presidential seal and standard]] and is heavily featured in the institution of the presidency of the country.

The official conventional long name, as defined by the [[Constitution of Kosovo|constitution]], is ''Republic of Kosovo''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016) |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |via=constituteproject.org |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102154102/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, as a result of an [[Belgrade–Pristina negotiations|arrangement agreed between Pristina and Belgrade]] in talks mediated by the European Union, Kosovo has participated in some international forums and organisations under the title "Kosovo*" with a footnote stating, "This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSC 1244 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence". This arrangement, which has been dubbed the "asterisk agreement", was agreed in an 11-point arrangement on 24 February 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=Agreement on regional representation of Kosovo|url=http://www.b92.net/eng/insight/pressroom.php?yyyy=2012&mm=02&nav_id=78973|access-date=11 November 2014|publisher=B92|date=25 February 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111162752/http://www.b92.net/eng/insight/pressroom.php?yyyy=2012&mm=02&nav_id=78973|archive-date=11 November 2014}}</ref>

== History ==
{{For timeline|Timeline of Kosovo history}}
{{Main|History of Kosovo}}

=== Ancient history ===
{{See also|Archaeology of Kosovo|Copper, Bronze and Iron Age sites in Kosovo}}
{{Further|Illyrians|Dardania (Roman province)|l2=Dardania}}

The strategic position including the abundant natural resources were favorable for the development of human settlements in Kosovo, as is highlighted by the hundreds of archaeological sites identified throughout its territory.<ref name=SchermerShukriu>{{cite book |last1=Schermer |first1=Shirley |last2=Shukriu |first2=Edi |last3=Deskaj |first3=Sylvia |editor1-last=Marquez-Grant |editor1-first=Nicholas |editor2-last=Fibiger |editor2-first=Linda |title=The Routledge Handbook of Archaeological Human Remains and Legislation: An International Guide to Laws and Practice in the Excavation and Treatment of Archaeological Human Remains |date=2011 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1136879562 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lzi4N-74QmAC |page=235 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=4 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204134209/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lzi4N-74QmAC |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Hyjnesha muze.jpg|thumb|Neolithic [[Goddess on the Throne]] is one of the most significant archaeological artifacts of Kosovo and has been adopted as the symbol of [[Pristina]].]]

Since 2000, the increase in archaeological expeditions has revealed many, previously unknown sites. The earliest documented traces in Kosovo are associated to the [[Stone Age]]; namely, indications that cave dwellings might have existed, such as Radivojce Cave near the source of the [[Drin (river)|Drin River]], Grnčar Cave in [[Viti, Kosovo|Viti municipality]] and the Dema and Karamakaz Caves in the [[Peja|municipality of Peja]].

The earliest archaeological evidence of organised settlement, which have been found in Kosovo, belong to the [[Neolithic]] [[Starčevo culture|Starčevo]] and [[Vinča culture|Vinča]] cultures.<ref name="Berisha">{{cite web |last=Berisha |first=Milot |title=Archaeological Guide of Kosovo |url=https://www.mkrs-ks.org/repository/docs/drafti_i_guides_-anglisht_final.pdf |year=2012 |publisher=Ministry of Culture of Kosovo |pages=17–18 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417092446/https://www.mkrs-ks.org/repository/docs/drafti_i_guides_-anglisht_final.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Vlashnjë]] and [[Runik]] are important sites of the [[Neolithic sites in Kosovo|Neolithic era]] with the rock art paintings at Mrrizi i Kobajës near [[Vlashnjë]] being the first find of prehistoric art in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shukriu |first1=Edi |author-link1=Edi Shukriu |title=Spirals of the prehistoric open rock painting from Kosova |journal=Proceedings of the XV World Congress of the International Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences |date=2006 |volume=35 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1787676 |page=59 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=14 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914015031/https://www.academia.edu/1787676 |url-status=live}}</ref> Amongst the finds of excavations in Neolithic Runik is a baked-clay [[ocarina]], which is the first musical instrument recorded in Kosovo.<ref name="Berisha"/>

[[File:Dardanian Kingdom (late 3rd century BC).png|left|thumb|[[Kingdom of Dardania]] in the 3rd century BCE.]]

The first archaeological expedition in Kosovo was organised by the Austro-Hungarian army during the [[World War I]] in the [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[tumuli]] burial grounds of Nepërbishti within the [[district of Prizren]].<ref name=SchermerShukriu/>

The beginning of the [[Bronze Age Europe|Bronze Age]] coincides with the presence of [[tumuli]] burial grounds in western Kosovo, like the site of [[Romajë]].<ref name="SchermerShukriu"/>

The [[Dardani]] were the most important [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan]] tribe in the region of Kosovo. A wide area which consists of Kosovo, parts of Northern Macedonia and eastern Serbia was named [[Kingdom of Dardania|Dardania]] after them in classical antiquity, reaching to the [[Thraco-Illyrian]] contact zone in the east. In archaeological research, Illyrian names are predominant in western Dardania, while Thracian names are mostly found in eastern Dardania.

Thracian names are absent in western Dardania, while some Illyrian names appear in the eastern parts. Thus, their identification as either an [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] or [[Thracians|Thracian]] tribe has been a subject of debate, the ethnolinguistic relationship between the two groups being largely uncertain and debated itself as well. The correspondence of Illyrian names, including those of the ruling elite, in Dardania with those of the southern Illyrians suggests a thracianization of parts of Dardania.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wilkes|first=John|title=The Illyrians|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C|year=1996|orig-year=1992|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-19807-9|page=85|access-date=20 September 2020|archive-date=2 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200502085653/https://books.google.com/books?id=4Nv6SPRKqs8C|url-status=live}}</ref> The Dardani retained an individuality and continued to maintain social independence after Roman conquest, playing an important role in the formation of new groupings in the Roman era.<ref name="Papazoglou">{{Cite book|last=Papazoglu|first=Fanula|author-link=Fanula Papazoglu|title=The Central Balkan Tribes in pre-Roman Times: Triballi, Autariatae, Dardanians, Scordisci and Moesians|year=1978|location=Amsterdam|publisher=Hakkert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4JAQAAIAAJ|page=131|isbn=9789025607937|access-date=27 September 2020|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411011011/https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4JAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Roman period ====
{{See also|Roman heritage in Kosovo}}

During Roman rule, Kosovo was part of two provinces, with its western part being part of [[Praevalitana]], and the vast majority of its modern territory belonging to [[Dardania (Roman province)|Dardania]]. Praevalitana and the rest of Illyria was conquered by the [[Roman Republic]] in 168 BC. On the other hand, Dardania maintained its independence until the year 28 BC, when the Romans, under [[Augustus]], annexed it into their Republic.<ref>{{cite book|last=Errington|first=Robert Malcolm|author-link=Robert Malcolm Errington|title=A History of Macedonia |location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990|translator=Catherine Errington|isbn=978-0-520-06319-8|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_PYgkqP_s1PQC |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PYgkqP_s1PQC&pg=PA185 185]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9OIvQEACAAJ |title=A History of Macedonia: 336-167 B.C. |last=Hammond |first=N.G.L. |date=1988 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-814815-1 |page=253 }}</ref> Dardania eventually became a part of the [[Moesia]] province.<ref>{{cite book|title=Starinar|volume=45–47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYxpAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Arheološki institut|page=33}}</ref> During the reign of [[Diocletian]], Dardania became a full [[Dardania (Roman province)|Roman province]] and the entirety of Kosovo's modern territory became a part of the [[Diocese of Moesiae|Diocese of Moesia]], and then during the second half of the 4th century, it became part of the [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Roisman|first=Joseph|chapter=Classical Macedonia to Perdiccas III|title=A Companion to Ancient Macedonia|pages=145–165|location=Oxford|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AncientMacedonia/Ancient%20Macedonia#page/n401/mode/2up| editor-given1 = Joseph | editor-surname1 = Roisman| editor-given2 = Ian | editor-surname2 = Worthington}}</ref>{{rp|548
}}
[[File:ULPIANA foto Arben Llapashtica 2016.jpg|thumb|Ruins of Ancient [[Ulpiana]] situated southeast of [[Pristina]]. The city, built by [[Trajan]], was an important political, cultural, and economic center of the Roman province of Dardania.]]

During Roman rule, a series of settlements developed in the area, mainly close to mines and to the major roads. The most important of the settlements was [[Ulpiana]],{{sfn|Teichner|2015|p=81}} which is located near modern-day [[Gračanica, Kosovo|Gračanica]]. It was established in the 1st century AD, possibly developing from a concentrated [[Kingdom of Dardania|Dardanian]] [[oppidum]], and then was upgraded to the status of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[municipium]] at the beginning of the 2nd century during the rule of [[Trajan]].<ref name="Anschnitt1">{{cite journal |title=Römischer Erzbergbau im Umfeld der antiken Stadt Ulpiana bei Pristina (Kosovo) |journal=Der Anschnitt |year=2011 |last1=Gassmann |first1=Guntram |last2=Körlin |first2=Gabriele |last3=Klein |first3=Sabine |volume=63 |pages=157–167 |url=https://www.bergbaumuseum.de/fileadmin/files/zoo/uploads/publikationen/gassmann2011-kosovo.pdf |access-date=2023-08-18 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214103414/https://www.bergbaumuseum.de/fileadmin/files/zoo/uploads/publikationen/gassmann2011-kosovo.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hoxhaj1">{{cite journal |title=Die frühchristliche dardanische Stadt Ulpiana und ihr Verhältnis zu Rom |journal=Dardanica |year=1999 |last=Hoxhaj |first=Enver |volume=8 |pages=21–33}}</ref> Ulpiana became especially important during the rule of [[Justinian I]], after the Emperor rebuilt the city after it had been destroyed by an earthquake and renamed it to ''Iustinianna Secunda''.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/1585643|title=Archaeological Guide of Kosovo|first=Milot|last=Berisha|access-date=5 December 2021|website=Academia.edu|archive-date=27 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427143514/https://www.academia.edu/1585643|url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Teichner|2015|p=83}}

Other important towns that developed in the area during Roman rule were [[Vendenis]], located in modern-day [[Podujevë]]; [[Viciano]], possibly near [[Vushtrri]]; and [[Municipium Dardanorum]], an important mining town in [[Leposavić]]. Other archeological sites include [[Çifllak (archaeological site)|Çifllak]] in Western Kosovo, [[Archaeological Site of Dresnik|Dresnik]] in [[Klina]], [[Pestova (archaeological site)|Pestova]] in Vushtrri, [[Kllokot-Vërban (archaeological site)|Vërban]] in [[Klokot]], [[Poslishte (archaeological site)|Poslishte]] between [[Vërmica]] and [[Prizren]], [[Paldenica (archaeological site)|Paldenica]] near [[Hani i Elezit]], as well as [[Nerodimë e Poshtme]] and [[Nikadin (archaeological site)|Nikadin]] near [[Ferizaj]]. The one thing all the settlements have in common is that they are located either near roads, such as Via [[Lissus (Illyria)|Lissus]]-[[Naissus]], or near the mines of [[North Kosovo]] and eastern Kosovo. Most of the settlements are archaeological sites that have been discovered recently and are being excavated.

It is also known that the region was Christianised during Roman rule, though little is known regarding Christianity in the Balkans in the three first centuries AD.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harnack|first=Adolf|title=The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries|volume=1–2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FltKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=1998|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-57910-002-5 |page=371}}</ref> The first clear mention of Christians in literature is the case of Bishop Dacus of Macedonia, from Dardania, who was present at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325).{{sfn|Harnack|1998|p=80}} It is also known that Dardania had a [[Diocese]] in the 4th century, and its seat was placed in Ulpiana, which remained the [[diocese|episcopal]] center of Dardania until the establishment of [[Justiniana Prima]] in 535 AD.<ref name="CetinkayaExcavate">{{cite journal |last1=Çetinkaya |first1=Halûk |title=To Excavate or not? Case of Discovery of an Early Christian Baptistery and Church at Ulpiana, Kosovo |journal=Actual Problems of Theory and History of Art |url=https://actual-art.org/files/sb/06/Cetinkaya.pdf |volume=6 |editor-last=Zakharova |editor-first=Anna |editor2-last=Maltseva |editor2-first=Svetlana |editor3-last=Stanyukovich-Denisova |editor3-first=Ekaterina |location=Saint Petersburg |publisher=NP-Print Publ. |year=2016 |pages=111–118 |doi=10.18688/aa166-2-11 |access-date=2023-08-18 |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310094626/https://actual-art.org/files/sb/06/Cetinkaya.pdf |url-status=live | issn = 2312-2129 }}</ref><ref name="Hoxhaj1" /> The first known bishop of Ulpiana is Machedonius, who was a member of the council of [[Serdika]]. Other known bishops were Paulus ([[synod]] of [[Constantinople]] in 553 AD), and Gregentius, who was sent by [[Justin I]] to [[Ethiopia]] and [[Yemen]] to ease problems among different Christian groups there.<ref name="CetinkayaExcavate" />

=== Middle Ages ===

In the next centuries, Kosovo was a frontier province of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]], and later of the [[Byzantine Empire]], and as a result it changed hands frequently. The region was exposed to an increasing number of raids from the 4th century CE onward, culminating with the [[Slavic migrations]] of the 6th and 7th centuries. Toponymic evidence suggests that [[Albanian language|Albanian]] was probably spoken in Kosovo prior to the Slavic settlement of the region.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Curtis |first=Matthew Cowan |title=Slavic-Albanian Language Contact, Convergence, and Coexistence |url=http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1338406907 |publisher=The Ohio State University |year=2012 |page=42 |access-date=15 December 2022 |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930143737/https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/etd/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=osu1338406907 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Prendergast2017">{{cite thesis|last1=Prendergast|first1=Eric|year=2017|title=The Origin and Spread of Locative Determiner Omission in the Balkan Linguistic Area|page=80|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nk454x6|publisher=UC Berkeley|access-date=7 June 2022|archive-date=12 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220512011446/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7nk454x6|url-status=live}}</ref> The overwhelming presence of towns and municipalities in Kosovo with Slavic in their toponymy suggests that the Slavic migrations either assimilated or drove out population groups already living in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Thomas |last=Kingsley |title=Albanian Onomastics Using Toponymic Correspondences to Understand the History of Albanian Settlement |conference=6th Annual Linguistics Conference at the University of Georgia |pages=110–151 |date=2019 |location=United States |url=https://esploro.libs.uga.edu/esploro/outputs/conferencePaper/Albanian-Onomastics-Using-Toponymic-Correspondences-to/9949423226902959?institution=01GALI_UGA |access-date=23 January 2023 |archive-date=27 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127220138/https://esploro.libs.uga.edu/esploro/outputs/conferencePaper/Albanian-Onomastics-Using-Toponymic-Correspondences-to/9949423226902959?institution=01GALI_UGA |url-status=live }}</ref>

There is one intriguing line of argument to suggest that the Slav presence in Kosovo and southernmost part of the Morava valley may have been quite weak in the first one or two centuries of Slav settlement. Only in the ninth century can the expansion of a strong Slav (or quasi-Slav) power into this region be observed. Under a series of ambitious rulers, the Bulgarians pushed westwards across modern Macedonia and eastern Serbia, until by the 850's they had taken over Kosovo and were pressing on the border of [[Principality of Serbia (early medieval)|Serbian Principality]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_FMZQQAACAAJ&q=kosovo+a+short+history |title=Kosovo: A Short History |isbn=9780330412247 |access-date=9 January 2021 |archive-date=11 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111130647/https://books.google.no/books?id=_FMZQQAACAAJ&dq=kosovo+a+short+history&hl=no&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj5z4PbjI_uAhWIuIsKHamyB90Q6AEwAHoECAAQAg |url-status=live |last1=Malcolm |first1=Noel |year=2002}}</ref>

The [[First Bulgarian Empire]] acquired Kosovo by the mid-9th century, but Byzantine control was [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|restored]] by the late 10th century. In 1072, the leaders of the Bulgarian [[Uprising of Georgi Voiteh]] traveled from their center in [[Skopje]] to Prizren and held a meeting in which they invited [[Mihailo Vojislavljević]] of [[Duklja]] to send them assistance. Mihailo sent his son, [[Constantine Bodin]] with 300 of his soldiers. After they met, the Bulgarian magnates proclaimed him "Emperor of the Bulgarians".<ref>{{cite book |last1=McGeer |first1=Eric |title=Byzantium in the Time of Troubles: The Continuation of the Chronicle of John Skylitzes (1057–1079) |date=2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004419407 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmjIDwAAQBAJ |page=149 |access-date=19 September 2020 |archive-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426180211/https://books.google.com/books?id=CmjIDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Demetrios Chomatenos]] is the last Byzantine archbishop of [[Ohrid]] to include Prizren in his jurisdiction until 1219.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prinzing |first1=Günter |title=Demetrii Chomateni Ponemata diaphora: [Das Aktencorpus des Ohrider Erzbischofs Demetrios. Einleitung, kritischer Text und Indices] |date=2008 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3110204506 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vllZG5zOxmMC |chapter=Demetrios Chomatenos, Zu seinem Leben und Wirken |page=30 |access-date=19 September 2020 |archive-date=5 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805223703/https://books.google.com/books?id=vllZG5zOxmMC |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Stefan Nemanja]] had seized the area along the [[White Drin]] in 1185 to 1195 and the ecclesiastical split of Prizren from the Patriarchate in 1219 was the final act of establishing [[Nemanjić dynasty|Nemanjić]] rule. [[Konstantin Jireček]] concluded, from the correspondence of archbishop Demetrios of Ohrid from 1216 to 1236, that Dardania was increasingly populated by Albanians and the expansion started from [[Gjakova]] and [[Prizren]] area, prior to the Slavic expansion.<ref name="Abulafia1999">{{cite book|last=Ducellier|first=Alain|title=The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 5, c.1198-c.1300|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC&pg=PA781|access-date=21 November 2012|date=1999-10-21|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-36289-4|page=780|archive-date=3 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103143439/http://books.google.com/books?id=bclfdU_2lesC&pg=PA781|url-status=live}}</ref>
 	
[[File:Gracanica 1.jpg|thumb|[[Gračanica Monastery]], a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]]
[[File:Manastir Visoki Dečani (Манастир Високи Дечани) - by Pudelek..jpg|thumb|[[Visoki Dečani Monastery]], a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]]

During the 13th and 14th centuries, Kosovo was a political, cultural and religious centre of the [[Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)|Serbian Kingdom]].<ref name="Sharpe 2003 364"/> In the late 13th century, the seat of the [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Archbishopric]] was moved to [[Peja]], and rulers centred themselves between [[Prizren]] and [[Skopje]],<ref>Denis P Hupchik. The Balkans. From Constantinople to Communism. p. 93 "Dusan.. established his new state primate's seat at Peć (Ipek), in Kosovo"</ref> during which time thousands of Christian monasteries and feudal-style forts and castles were erected,<ref>Bieber, p. 12</ref> with [[Stefan Dušan]] using [[Prizren Fortress]] as one of his temporary courts for a time. When the Serbian Empire fragmented into a conglomeration of principalities in 1371, Kosovo became the hereditary land of the [[House of Branković]].<ref name="Sharpe 2003 364">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC |title=Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-Century Central-Eastern Europe |page=364 |last=Sharpe |first=M. E. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803211910/https://books.google.rs/books?id=jLfX1q3kJzgC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=3 August 2017 |isbn=9780765618337 |year=2003|publisher=M.E. Sharpe }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=RFE/RL Research Report: Weekly Analyses from the RFE/RL Research Institute, Том 3 |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty}}</ref> During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, parts of Kosovo, the easternmost area located near Pristina, were part of the [[Principality of Dukagjini]], which was later incorporated into an anti-Ottoman federation of all Albanian principalities, the [[League of Lezhë]].<ref name="Sellers2010">{{cite book|last=Sellers|first=Mortimer|title=The Rule of Law in Comparative Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Rx7_KyUp7cC&pg=PA207|access-date=2 February 2011|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-3748-0|page=207|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511193103/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Rx7_KyUp7cC&pg=PA207|archive-date=11 May 2011}}</ref>

[[Medieval Monuments in Kosovo]] is a combined [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]] consisting of four [[Serbian Orthodox]] churches and [[List of Serbian Orthodox monasteries|monasteries]] in [[Deçan]], [[Peja]], [[Prizren]] and [[Gračanica, Kosovo|Gračanica]]. The constructions were founded by members of the [[Nemanjić dynasty]], a prominent dynasty of [[Serbia in the Middle Ages|mediaeval Serbia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724 |title=Medieval Monuments in Kosovo |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=7 September 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513120313/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724/ |archive-date=13 May 2015}}</ref>

==== Ottoman rule ====
{{Main|History of Ottoman Kosovo}}
{{See also|Battle of Kosovo|Vilayet of Kosovo}}

[[File:Xhamia_e_Madhe_Prishtine.JPG|upright=0.85|thumb|The [[Imperial Mosque (Pristina)|Imperial Mosque of Pristina]] built by [[Mehmed the Conqueror|Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror]], 1461]]

In 1389, as the [[Ottoman Empire]] expanded northwards through the Balkans, Ottoman forces under Sultan [[Murad I]] met with a Christian coalition led by [[Moravian Serbia]] under [[Lazar of Serbia|Prince Lazar]] in the [[Battle of Kosovo]]. Both sides suffered heavy losses and the battle was a stalemate and it was even reported as a Christian victory at first, but Serbian manpower was depleted and ''de facto'' Serbian rulers could not raise another equal force to the Ottoman army.<ref name="Jelavich1983">{{cite book|author=Barbara Jelavich|title=History of the Balkans|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela|url-access=registration|year=1983|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-27458-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofbalkans0000jela/page/31 31]–}}</ref><ref name="prospect-magazine.co.uk">{{cite web|url=http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/thebattleofkosovo/#axzz3eyNaDTl6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531075927/http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/thebattleofkosovo/ |archive-date=31 May 2012 |title= Essays: 'The battle of Kosovo' by Noel Malcolm, Prospect Magazine May 1998 issue 30 |publisher=Prospect-magazine.co.uk |access-date=20 July 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Humphreys46a2">{{harvnb|Humphreys|2013|p=46|ps=: "Both armies – and this is a fact that is ignored by the hagiographic telling – contained soldiers of various origins; Bosnians, Albanians, Hungarians, Greeks, Bulgars, perhaps even Catalans (on the Ottoman side)."}}</ref><ref name="Somel 2010 p. 36">{{cite book |last=Somel |first=S.A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC&pg=PA36 |title=The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4617-3176-4 |series=The A to Z Guide Series |page=36 |quote="The coalition consisted of Serbians, Bosnians, Croatians, Hungarians, Wallachians, Bulgarians, and Albanians." |access-date=10 May 2024 |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128152103/https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC&pg=PA36 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Different parts of Kosovo were ruled directly or indirectly by the Ottomans in this early period. The medieval town of [[Novo Brdo]] was under Lazar's son, [[Stefan Lazarević|Stefan]] who became a loyal Ottoman vassal and instigated the downfall of [[Vuk Branković]] who eventually joined the Hungarian anti-Ottoman coalition and was defeated in 1395–96. A small part of Vuk's land with the villages of Pristina and Vushtrri was given to his sons to hold as Ottoman vassals for a brief period.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1994|pp=409–415}}</ref>

By 1455–57, the Ottoman Empire assumed direct control of all of Kosovo and the region remained part of the empire until 1912. During this period, [[Islam]] was introduced to the region. After the failed [[Battle of Vienna|siege of Vienna]] by the Ottoman forces in 1693 during the [[Great Turkish War]], a number of Serbs that lived in Kosovo, Macedonia and south Serbia migrated northwards near the Danube and Sava rivers, and is one of the events known as the [[Great Migrations of the Serbs|great migrations of the Serbs]] which also included some Christian Albanians.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last1=Warrander |first1=Gail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCRjKdrmqqEC |title=Kosovo |last2=Knaus |first2=Verena |date=2007 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-199-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Casiday |first=Augustine |title=The Orthodox Christian World |url=https://rifdt.instifdt.bg.ac.rs/bitstream/handle/123456789/1932/Cvetkovic%20-%20Serbian%20Tradition.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |pages=135 |year=2012 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=16 September 2023 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121151335/https://rifdt.instifdt.bg.ac.rs/bitstream/handle/123456789/1932/Cvetkovic%20-%20Serbian%20Tradition.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Rama2019">{{cite book |author=Shinasi A. Rama |title=Nation Failure, Ethnic Elites, and Balance of Power: The International Administration of Kosova |publisher=Springer |year=2019 |page=64}}</ref> The Albanians and Serbs who stayed in Kosovo after the war faced waves of Ottoman and Tatar forces, who unleashed a savage retaliation on the local population.<ref name=":5" /> To compensate for the population loss, the Turks encouraged settlement of non-Slav Muslim Albanians in the wider region of Kosovo.<ref>• Cohen, Paul A. (2014). ''[https://books.google.de/books?id=DcfbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false History and Popular Memory: The Power of Story in Moments of Crisis]''. Columbia University Press. pp. 8–9. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-23153-729-2|<bdi>978-0-23153-729-2</bdi>]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211130180358/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcfbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 Archived] from the original on 30 November 2021.

• J. Everett-Heath (1 August 2000). ''Place Names of the World - Europe: Historical Context, Meanings and Changes''. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 365. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-230-28673-3|<bdi>978-0-230-28673-3</bdi>]]. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20230930143730/https://books.google.com/books?id=uK2HDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA373#v=onepage&q&f=false the original] on 30 September 2023. 

• Geniş, Şerife, and Kelly Lynne Maynard (2009). [https://archive.ph/20160507022158/http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263200903009619 Formation of a diasporic community: The history of migration and resettlement of Muslim Albanians in the Black Sea Region of Turkey]." ''Middle Eastern Studies''. '''45'''. (4): 556–557.

• Lampe, John R.; Lampe, Professor John R. (2000). ''[https://books.google.de/books?id=AZ1x7gvwx_8C&q=A&pg=PA27&redir_esc=y#v=snippet&q=A&f=false Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 26. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77401-7|<bdi>978-0-521-77401-7</bdi>]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230930144241/https://books.google.com/books?id=AZ1x7gvwx_8C&q=A&pg=PA27#v=snippet&q=A&f=false Archived] from the original on 30 September 2023. <q>The first Ottoman encouragement of Albanian migration did follow the Serb exodus of 1690</q>

• Anscombe, Frederick F 2006 - <nowiki>http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/577/1/Binder2.pdf</nowiki> [https://web.archive.org/web/20110514093015/http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/577/1/Binder2.pdf Archived] 14 May 2011 at the [[Wayback Machine]] </ref> By the end of the 18th century, Kosovo would reattain an Albanian majority - with Peja, Prizren, Prishtina becoming especially important towns for the local Muslim population.<ref>• Cohen, Paul A. (2014). ''History and Popular Memory: The Power of Story in Moments of Crisis''. Columbia University Press. pp. 8–9. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-23153-729-2|<bdi>978-0-23153-729-2</bdi>]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211130180358/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcfbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 Archived] from the original on 30 November 2021.

• Lampe, John R.; Lampe, Professor John R. (2000). ''Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country''. Cambridge University Press. p. 26. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77401-7|<bdi>978-0-521-77401-7</bdi>]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230930144241/https://books.google.com/books?id=AZ1x7gvwx_8C&q=A&pg=PA27#v=snippet&q=A&f=false Archived] from the original on 30 September 2023. <q>The first Ottoman encouragement of Albanian migration did follow the Serb exodus of 1690</q>

• Malcolm, Noel (10 July 2020). ''Noel Malcolm 2020 p . 135''. Oxford University Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-19-259922-3|<bdi>978-0-19-259922-3</bdi>]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230930144243/https://books.google.com/books?id=0FXwDwAAQBAJ Archived] from the original on 30 September 2023.

• Rebels, Believers, Survivors: Studies in the history of the Albanians - Malcolm 2020 p. 132-133/p

• Rebels, Believers, Survivors: Studies in the history of the Albanians - Malcolm 2020 p. 143/p</ref>

Although initially stout opponents of the advancing Turks, Albanian chiefs ultimately came to accept the Ottomans as sovereigns. The resulting alliance facilitated the mass conversion of Albanians to Islam. Given that the Ottoman Empire's subjects were divided along religious (rather than ethnic) lines, the spread of Islam greatly elevated the status of Albanian chiefs. Centuries earlier, Albanians of Kosovo were predominantly Christian and Albanians and Serbs for the most part co-existed peacefully. The Ottomans appeared to have a more deliberate approach to converting the Roman Catholic population who were mostly Albanians in comparison with the mostly Serbian adherents of Eastern Orthodoxy, as they viewed the former less favorably due to its allegiance to Rome, a competing regional power.<ref name="Cohen">{{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Paul A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DcfbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |title=History and Popular Memory: The Power of Story in Moments of Crisis |date=2014 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-23153-729-2 |pages=8–9 |access-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130180358/https://books.google.com/books?id=DcfbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |archive-date=30 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Rise of nationalism ====

[[File:Qendra historike e Prizrenitaa.jpg|thumb|right|The city of [[Prizren]] was the cultural and intellectual centre of Kosovo during the Ottoman period in the Middle Ages and is now the historic capital of Kosovo.]]

In the 19th century, there was an [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|awakening]] of [[ethnic nationalism]] throughout the Balkans. The underlying ethnic tensions became part of a broader struggle of Christian Serbs against Muslim Albanians.<ref name="prospect-magazine.co.uk"/> The ethnic [[National Renaissance of Albania|Albanian nationalism]] movement was centred in Kosovo. In 1878 the [[League of Prizren]] ({{lang|sq|Lidhja e Prizrenit}}) was formed, a political organisation that sought to unify all the Albanians of the Ottoman Empire in a common struggle for autonomy and greater cultural rights,<ref>''Kosovo: What Everyone Needs to Know'' by Tim Judah, Publisher [[Oxford University Press]], US, 2008 {{ISBN|0-19-537673-0|978-0-19-537673-9}} p. 36</ref> although they generally desired the continuation of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Cirkovic. p. 244">Cirkovic. p. 244.</ref> The League was dis-established in 1881 but enabled the awakening of a [[nation|national identity]] among Albanians,<ref>George Gawlrych, ''The Crescent and the Eagle,'' (Palgrave/Macmillan, London, 2006), {{ISBN|1-84511-287-3}}</ref> whose ambitions competed with those of the Serbs, the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] wishing to incorporate this land that had formerly been within its empire.

The modern Albanian-Serbian conflict has its roots in the [[Expulsion of the Albanians 1877–1878|expulsion of the Albanians in 1877–1878]] from areas that became incorporated into the [[Principality of Serbia]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Frantz|first=Eva Anne |title= Violence and its Impact on Loyalty and Identity Formation in Late Ottoman Kosovo: Muslims and Christians in a Period of Reform and Transformation |journal= Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs |volume=29 |issue=4 |year=2009 |pages=460–461 |doi=10.1080/13602000903411366|s2cid=143499467}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Müller|first=Dietmar|title=Orientalism and Nation: Jews and Muslims as Alterity in Southeastern Europe in the Age of Nation-States, 1878–1941|journal=East Central Europe|volume=36|issue=1|year=2009|page=70|doi=10.1163/187633009x411485}}</ref> During and after the [[Serbian–Ottoman War (1876–78)|Serbian–Ottoman War of 1876–78]], between 30,000 and 70,000 Muslims, mostly Albanians, were expelled by the [[Armed forces of the Principality of Serbia|Serb army]] from the [[Sanjak of Niš]] and fled to the [[Kosovo Vilayet]].<ref>Pllana, Emin (1985). "Les raisons de la manière de l'exode des refugies albanais du territoire du sandjak de Nish a Kosove (1878–1878) [The reasons for the manner of the exodus of Albanian refugees from the territory of the Sanjak of Niš to Kosovo (1878–1878)] ". ''Studia Albanica''. '''1''': 189–190.</ref><ref>Rizaj, Skënder (1981). "Nënte Dokumente angleze mbi Lidhjen Shqiptare të Prizrenit (1878–1880) [Nine English documents about the League of Prizren (1878–1880)]". ''Gjurmine Albanologjike (Seria e Shkencave Historike)''. '''10''': 198.</ref><ref>Şimşir, Bilal N, (1968). ''Rumeli'den Türk göçleri. Emigrations turques des Balkans [Turkish emigrations from the Balkans]''. Vol I. Belgeler-Documents. p. 737.</ref><ref name=Batakovic1992>{{cite book|last=Bataković|first=Dušan|title=The Kosovo Chronicles|year=1992|publisher=Plato|url=http://www.rastko.rs/kosovo/istorija/kosovo_chronicles/kc_part2b.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226174611/http://www.rastko.rs/kosovo/istorija/kosovo_chronicles/kc_part2b.html|archive-date=26 December 2016}}</ref><ref name=Elsie2010>{{cite book|last=Elsie|first=Robert|title=Historical Dictionary of Kosovo|year=2010|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780333666128|page=xxxii}}</ref><ref>Stefanović, Djordje (2005). "Seeing the Albanians through Serbian eyes: The Inventors of the Tradition of Intolerance and their Critics, 1804–1939." ''European History Quarterly''. '''35'''. (3): 470.</ref> According to Austrian data, by the 1890s Kosovo was 70% Muslim (nearly entirely of Albanian descent) and less than 30% non-Muslim (primarily Serbs).<ref name="Cohen" /> In May 1901, Albanians pillaged and partially burned the cities of [[Novi Pazar]], [[Sjenica]] and Pristina, and [[Violence against Serbs during the late Ottoman era|killed many Serbs]] near Pristina and in Kolašin (now North Kosovo).<ref name=King-Mason-30>{{cite book|author1=Iain King|author2=Whit Mason|title=Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9m3Hp2OevdUC&pg=PA30|year=2006|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-4539-2|page=30|access-date=7 October 2018|archive-date=9 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109150705/https://books.google.com/books?id=9m3Hp2OevdUC&pg=PA30|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Skendi |first1=Stavro |title=The Albanian National Awakening |date=2015 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-4776-1 |page=201 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QPWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |access-date=28 July 2021 |archive-date=28 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728220204/https://books.google.com/books?id=8QPWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Serbia1913.png|thumb|left| Division of [[Kosovo vilayet]] between the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] (''yellow'') and the [[Kingdom of Montenegro]] (''green'') following the [[Balkan Wars]] 1913.]]

In the spring of 1912, Albanians under the lead of [[Hasan Prishtina]] [[Albanian revolt of 1912|revolted]] against the Ottoman Empire. The rebels were joined by a wave of Albanians in the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]] ranks, who deserted the army, refusing to fight their own kin. The rebels defeated the Ottomans and the latter were forced to accept all fourteen demands of the rebels, which foresaw an effective autonomy for the Albanians living in the Empire.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=246-248}} However, this autonomy never materialised, and the revolt created serious weaknesses in the Ottoman ranks, luring [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]], [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], and [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]] into declaring war on the Ottoman Empire and starting the [[First Balkan War]].

After the Ottomans' defeat in the [[First Balkan War]], the [[Treaty of London (1913)|1913 Treaty of London]] was signed with Metohija ceded to the [[Kingdom of Montenegro]] and eastern Kosovo ceded to the [[Kingdom of Serbia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos145.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970501052336/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos145.htm|archive-date=1 May 1997 |title=Treaty of London, 1913 |publisher=Mtholyoke.edu |access-date=6 November 2011}}</ref> During the [[Balkan Wars]], over 100,000 Albanians left Kosovo and about 50,000 were killed in the [[Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars|massacres]] that accompanied the war.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Malcolm|first=Noel|date=1999|title=Kosovo – A Short History|journal=Verfassung in Recht und Übersee|volume=32|issue=3|pages=422–423|doi=10.5771/0506-7286-1999-3-422|issn=0506-7286|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Aggression Against Yugoslavia Correspondence |date=2000 |publisher=Faculty of Law, University of Belgrade |isbn=978-86-80763-91-0 |page=42 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cEEmAQAAIAAJ&q=freundlich |access-date=29 April 2020 |language=en |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930144245/https://books.google.com/books?id=cEEmAQAAIAAJ&q=freundlich |url-status=live }}</ref> Soon, there were concerted [[Yugoslav colonization of Kosovo|Serbian colonisation efforts]] in Kosovo during various periods between Serbia's 1912 takeover of the province and [[World War&nbsp;II]], causing the population of Serbs in Kosovo to grow by about 58,000 in this period.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=279}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pavlović|first=Aleksandar|title=Prostorni raspored Srba i Crnogoraca kolonizovanih na Kosovo i Metohiju u periodu između 1918. i 1941. godine|url=http://scindeks-clanci.nb.rs/data/pdf/0353-9008/2008/0353-90080824231P.pdf|journal=Baština|volume=24|year=2008|pages=235|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826204541/http://scindeks-clanci.nb.rs/data/pdf/0353-9008/2008/0353-90080824231P.pdf|archive-date=26 August 2011}}</ref>

Serbian authorities promoted creating new Serb settlements in Kosovo as well as the assimilation of Albanians into Serbian society, causing a mass exodus of Albanians from Kosovo.<ref name = "Schabnel 2001 20">Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur, Ramesh (eds). Kosovo and the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation, [[Collective action]], and International Citizenship. New York: The United Nations University, 2001. p. 20.</ref> The figures of Albanians forcefully expelled from Kosovo range between 60,000 and 239,807, while Malcolm mentions 100,000–120,000. In combination with the politics of extermination and expulsion, there was also a process of assimilation through religious conversion of Albanian Muslims and Albanian Catholics into the Serbian Orthodox religion which took place as early as 1912. These politics seem to have been inspired by the nationalist ideologies of [[Ilija Garašanin]] and [[Jovan Cvijić]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=I. Mehmeti |first1=Leandrit |last2=Radeljic |first2=Branislav |title=Kosovo and Serbia: Contested Options and Shared Consequences |date=24 March 2017 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |location=Pittsburgh |pages=63–64 |isbn=978-0822944690 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWMqDwAAQBAJ |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171432/https://books.google.com/books?id=IWMqDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the winter of 1915–16, during [[World War I]], Kosovo saw the retreat of the Serbian army as Kosovo was occupied by [[Bulgaria]] and [[Austria-Hungary]]. In 1918, the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] pushed the [[Central Powers]] out of Kosovo.
 	
[[File:Germans in Kosovska Mitrovica.jpg|upright=0.85|thumb|German soldiers set fire to a Serbian village near [[Mitrovica, Kosovo|Mitrovica]], circa 1941.]]

A new administration system since 26 April 1922 split Kosovo among three districts ([[oblast]]) of the Kingdom: Kosovo, Raška and Zeta. In 1929, the country was transformed into the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] and the territories of Kosovo were reorganised among the [[Zeta Banovina|Banate of Zeta]], the [[Morava Banovina|Banate of Morava]] and the [[Vardar Banovina|Banate of Vardar]]. In order to change the [[Demographics of Kosovo|ethnic composition of Kosovo]], between 1912 and 1941 a [[Colonisation of Kosovo|large-scale Serbian colonisation of Kosovo]] was undertaken by the Belgrade government. Kosovar Albanians' right to receive education in their own language [[Persecution of Albanians in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia|was denied]] alongside other non-Slavic or unrecognised Slavic nations of Yugoslavia, as the kingdom only recognised the Slavic Croat, Serb, and Slovene nations as constituent nations of Yugoslavia. Other Slavs had to identify as one of the three official Slavic nations and non-Slav nations deemed as minorities.<ref name = "Schabnel 2001 20"/>

Albanians and other [[Muslims]] were forced to emigrate, mainly with the land reform which struck Albanian landowners in 1919, but also with direct violent measures.<ref name="daskalovski">Daskalovski, Židas. Claims to Kosovo: Nationalism and [[Self-determination]]. In: Florian Bieber & Zidas Daskalovski (eds.), ''Understanding the War in Kosovo''. L.: Frank Cass, 2003. {{ISBN|0-7146-5391-8}}. pp. 13–30.</ref>{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=}} In 1935 and 1938, two agreements between the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Turkey were signed on the expatriation of 240,000 Albanians to Turkey, but the expatriation did not occur due to the outbreak of [[World War II]].<ref>Ramet, Sabrina P. The Kingdom of God or the Kingdom of Ends: Kosovo in Serbian Perception. In Mary Buckley & Sally N. Cummings (eds.), ''Kosovo: Perceptions of War and Its Aftermath''. L.&nbsp;– N.Y.: Continuum Press, 2002. {{ISBN|0-8264-5670-7}}. pp. 30–46.</ref>

After the [[Axis invasion of Yugoslavia]] in 1941, most of Kosovo was assigned to Italian-controlled Albania, and the rest was controlled by Germany and Bulgaria. A three-dimensional conflict ensued, involving inter-ethnic, ideological, and international affiliations.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=312}} Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bieber |first1=Florian |last2=Daskalovski |first2=Zidas |title=Understanding the War in Kosovo |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-13576-155-4 |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6OiQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |access-date=19 November 2021 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119180548/https://books.google.com/books?id=6OiQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 |url-status=live}}</ref> Estimates differ, but most authors estimate that between 3,000 and 10,000 Serbs and Montenegrins [[Massacres of Kosovo Serbs in WWII|died in Kosovo during the Second World War]]. Another 30,000 to 40,000, or as high as 100,000, Serbs and Montenegrins, mainly settlers, were deported to Serbia in order to [[Albanianise]] Kosovo.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=312}}<ref name="Ramet2006" /> A decree from Yugoslav leader [[Josip Broz Tito]], followed by a new law in August 1945 disallowed the return of colonists who had taken land from Albanian peasants.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=317-318}} During the war years, some Serbs and Montenegrins were sent to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica.<ref name="Ramet2006">{{cite book |last1=Ramet |first1=Sabrina P. |title=The Three Yugoslavias: State-building and Legitimation, 1918-2005 |date=2006 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-25334-656-8 |pages=114, 141 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC&pg=PA114 |access-date=19 November 2021 |archive-date=19 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119180549/https://books.google.com/books?id=FTw3lEqi2-oC&pg=PA114 |url-status=live}}</ref> Nonetheless, these conflicts were relatively low-level compared with other areas of Yugoslavia during the war years. Two Serb historians also estimate that 12,000 Albanians died.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|p=312}} An official investigation conducted by the Yugoslav government in 1964 recorded nearly 8,000 war-related fatalities in Kosovo between 1941 and 1945, 5,489 of them Serb or Montenegrin and 2,177 Albanian.<ref>{{cite book|last = Frank|first = Chaim|editor1-last = Petersen|editor1-first = Hans-Christian|editor2-last = Salzborn|editor2-first = Samuel|year = 2010|title = Antisemitism in Eastern Europe: History and Present in Comparison|publisher = Peter Lang|location = [[Bern]]|isbn = 978-3-631-59828-3|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=k6sqlTGHpsAC|pages = 97–98|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151016003257/https://books.google.com/books?id=k6sqlTGHpsAC|archive-date = 16 October 2015|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Some sources note that up to 72,000 individuals were encouraged to settle or resettle into Kosovo from Albania by the short-lived Italian administration.<ref>{{Citation|last=Vickers|first=Miranda|title=Between Serb and Albanian : a history of Kosovo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S41pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22encouraged+an+extensive%22|year=1998|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=9781850652786|quote=The Italian occupation force encouraged an extensive settlement programme involving up to 72,000 Albanians from Albania in Kosovo|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304215008/https://books.google.rs/books?id=S41pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22encouraged+an+extensive%22|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="Ramet2006" /> As the regime collapsed, this was never materialised with historians and contemporary references emphasising that a large-scale migration of Albanians from Albania to Kosovo is not recorded in Axis documents.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|pp=312-313}}
{{Clear}}

=== Communist Yugoslavia ===
{{Main|Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo}}

[[File:Flag of SFR Yugoslav Albanian Minority.svg|thumb|The flag of the Albanian minority of Kosovo in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.]]

The existing province took shape in 1945 as the ''Autonomous Region of Kosovo and Metohija'', with a final demarcation in 1959.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Flere |first1=Sergej |last2=Klanjšek |first2=Rudi |title=The Rise and Fall of Socialist Yugoslavia: Elite Nationalism and the Collapse of a Federation |date=2019 |publisher=Lexington Books |location=United Kingdom |isbn=978-1-4985-4197-8 |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Pavlowitch|first=Stevan K.|author-link=Stevan K. Pavlowitch|title=Serbia: The History behind the Name|year=2002|location=London|publisher=Hurst & Company|isbn=9781850654773 |page=159}}</ref> Until 1945, the only entity bearing the name of Kosovo in the late modern period had been the Vilayet of Kosovo, a political unit created by the Ottoman Empire in 1877. However, those borders were different.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Ben |title=Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in the Post-Communist World |date=2002 |publisher=Palgrave |location=United States of America |isbn=978-1-349-41937-1 |page=10}}</ref>

Tensions between ethnic Albanians and the Yugoslav government were significant, not only due to ethnic tensions but also due to political ideological concerns, especially regarding relations with neighbouring Albania.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35">Independent International Commission on Kosovo. ''The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 35.</ref> Harsh repressive measures were imposed on Kosovo Albanians due to suspicions that there were sympathisers of the [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] regime of [[Enver Hoxha]] of Albania.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35"/> In 1956, a show trial in Pristina was held in which multiple Albanian Communists of Kosovo were convicted of being infiltrators from Albania and given long prison sentences.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35"/> High-ranking Serbian communist official [[Aleksandar Ranković]] sought to secure the position of the Serbs in Kosovo and gave them dominance in Kosovo's [[nomenklatura]].<ref>Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 295.</ref>
[[File:Fadil Hoxha, commander of Kosovo partisans.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Fadil Hoxha]], the vice-president of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], from 1978 to 1979.]]
[[Islam]] in Kosovo at this time was repressed and both Albanians and Muslim Slavs were encouraged to declare themselves to be Turkish and emigrate to Turkey.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35"/> At the same time Serbs and Montenegrins dominated the government, security forces, and industrial employment in Kosovo.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35"/> Albanians resented these conditions and protested against them in the late 1960s, calling the actions taken by authorities in Kosovo colonialist, and demanding that Kosovo be made a republic, or declaring support for Albania.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35"/>

After the ouster of Ranković in 1966, the agenda of pro-decentralisation reformers in Yugoslavia succeeded in the late 1960s in attaining substantial decentralisation of powers, creating substantial autonomy in Kosovo and Vojvodina, and recognising a Muslim Yugoslav nationality.<ref name="Melissa Katherine Bokovoy 1992. Pp. 296">Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 296.</ref> As a result of these reforms, there was a massive overhaul of Kosovo's nomenklatura and police, that shifted from being Serb-dominated to ethnic Albanian-dominated through firing Serbs in large scale.<ref name="Melissa Katherine Bokovoy 1992. Pp. 296"/> Further concessions were made to the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo in response to unrest, including the creation of the [[Universiteti i Prishtinës|University of Pristina]] as an [[Albanian language]] institution.<ref name="Melissa Katherine Bokovoy 1992. Pp. 296"/> These changes created widespread fear among Serbs that they were being made [[second-class citizen]]s in Yugoslavia.<ref>Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. p. 301.</ref> By the 1974 Constitution of Yugoslavia, Kosovo was granted major autonomy, allowing it to have its own administration, assembly, and judiciary; as well as having a membership in the collective presidency and the Yugoslav parliament, in which it held veto power.<ref>Independent International Commission on Kosovo. ''The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. pp. 35–36.</ref>

In the aftermath of the 1974 constitution, concerns over the rise of Albanian nationalism in Kosovo rose with the widespread celebrations in 1978 of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the [[League of Prizren]].<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 35"/> Albanians felt that their status as a "minority" in Yugoslavia had made them second-class citizens in comparison with the "nations" of Yugoslavia and demanded that Kosovo be a [[Constituent state|constituent republic]], alongside the other republics of Yugoslavia.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 36">Independent International Commission on Kosovo. ''The Kosovo report: conflict, international response, lessons learned''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 36.</ref> [[1981 protests in Kosovo|Protests by Albanians in 1981 over the status of Kosovo]] resulted in Yugoslav territorial defence units being brought into Kosovo and a state of emergency being declared resulting in violence and the protests being crushed.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 36"/> In the aftermath of the 1981 protests, purges took place in the Communist Party, and rights that had been recently granted to Albanians were rescinded&nbsp;– including ending the provision of Albanian professors and Albanian language textbooks in the education system.<ref name="Kosovo. 2000. Pp. 36"/>

While Albanians in the region had the highest birth rates in Europe, other areas of Yugoslavia including Serbia had low birth rates. Increased urbanisation and economic development led to higher settlements of Albanian workers into Serb-majority areas, as Serbs departed in response to the economic climate for more favorable real estate conditions in Serbia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Qirezi |first1=Arben |editor1-last=Mehmeti |editor1-first=Leandrit I. |editor2-last=Radeljić |editor2-first=Branislav |title=Kosovo and Serbia: Contested Options and Shared Consequences |date=2017 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0-8229-8157-2 |pages=53–57 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWMqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76 |chapter=Settling the Self Determination Dispute in Kosovo |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704174259/https://books.google.com/books?id=IWMqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76 |url-status=live }}</ref> While there was tension, charges of "genocide" and planned harassment have been discredited as a pretext to revoke Kosovo's autonomy. For example, in 1986 the Serbian Orthodox Church published an official claim that Kosovo Serbs were being subjected to an Albanian program of 'genocide'.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ap8wa_YmT2QC&pg=PA215 |title=Religion and the Creation of Race and Ethnicity: An Introduction |publisher=New York University Press |access-date=20 July 2009 |isbn=978-0-8147-6701-6 |editor-last=Prentiss |editor-first=Craig R |year=2003 |archive-date=24 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124233817/https://books.google.com/books?id=ap8wa_YmT2QC&pg=PA215 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Even though they were disproved by police statistics,<ref name="books.google.com"/>{{Page needed|date=June 2014}} they received wide attention in the Serbian press and that led to further ethnic problems and eventual removal of Kosovo's status. Beginning in March 1981, Kosovar Albanian students of the University of Pristina organised protests seeking that Kosovo become a republic within Yugoslavia and demanding their human rights.<ref name="nyt19810419">New York Times 1981-04-19, "One Storm has Passed but Others are Gathering in Yugoslavia"</ref> The protests were brutally suppressed by the police and army, with many protesters arrested.<ref name="hdk">[[Robert Elsie|Elsie, Robert]]. ''Historical Dictionary of Kosova''. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8108-5309-4}}.</ref> During the 1980s, ethnic tensions continued with frequent violent outbreaks against Yugoslav state authorities, resulting in a further increase in emigration of Kosovo Serbs and other ethnic groups.<ref name="reuters19860527">Reuters 1986-05-27, "Kosovo Province Revives Yugoslavia's Ethnic Nightmare"</ref><ref name="csm19860728">Christian Science Monitor 1986-07-28, "Tensions among ethnic groups in Yugoslavia begin to boil over"</ref> The Yugoslav leadership tried to suppress protests of Kosovo Serbs seeking protection from ethnic discrimination and violence.<ref name="nyt19870627">New York Times 1987-06-27, "Belgrade Battles Kosovo Serbs"</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Kosovo War ===
{{Main|Kosovo War}}
{{Further|War crimes in the Kosovo War}}

[[File:Dr. Ibrahim Rugova.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Ibrahim Rugova]] advocated for the rights of Kosovar Albanians and their self-determination.]]

Inter-ethnic tensions continued to worsen in Kosovo throughout the 1980s. In 1989, Serbian President [[Slobodan Milošević]], employing a mix of intimidation and political maneuvering, drastically reduced Kosovo's special autonomous status within Serbia and started cultural oppression of the ethnic Albanian population.<ref name="rogel">{{Cite journal|url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1025397128633|doi=10.1023/A:1025397128633|year=2003|last1=Rogel|first1=Carole|title=Kosovo: Where It All Began|journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society|volume=17|issue=1|pages=167–182|s2cid=141051220|access-date=20 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624203551/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1025397128633|url-status=live}}</ref> Kosovar Albanians responded with a [[Non-violent resistance|non-violent]] separatist movement, employing widespread [[civil disobedience]] and creation of parallel structures in [[medical school|education, medical]] care, and taxation, with the ultimate goal of achieving the [[independence of Kosovo]].<ref>Clark, Howard. ''Civil Resistance in Kosovo''. London: [[Pluto Press]], 2000. {{ISBN|0-7453-1569-0}}.</ref>

In July 1990, the Kosovo Albanians proclaimed the existence of the [[Republic of Kosova (1990–2000)|Republic of Kosova]], and declared it a sovereign and independent state in September 1992.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|pp=346-347}} In May 1992, [[Ibrahim Rugova]] was elected its president.<ref name="babuna">Babuna, Aydın. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110512010615/http://www.sam.gov.tr/perceptions/Volume8/September-November2003/AydinBabuna2Dec2003.pdf Albanian national identity and Islam in the post-Communist era]. ''Perceptions'' 8(3), September–November 2003: 43–69.</ref> During its lifetime, the Republic of Kosova was only officially [[diplomatic recognition|recognised]] by Albania. By the mid-1990s, the Kosovo Albanian population was growing restless, as the status of Kosovo was not resolved as part of the [[Dayton Agreement]] of November 1995, which ended the [[Bosnian War]]. By 1996, the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] (KLA), an ethnic Albanian guerrilla [[Paramilitary|paramilitary group]] that sought the separation of Kosovo and the eventual creation of a [[Greater Albania]],<ref>See:
*{{Cite book|title=State-building in Kosovo. A plural policing perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YS15BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|publisher=Maklu|date=2015|page=53|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306202756/https://books.google.rs/books?id=YS15BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53|archive-date=6 March 2016|isbn=9789046607497|access-date=7 September 2016}}
*{{Cite book|title=Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Diplomacy and U. S. Intervention|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA69|publisher=[[Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs]]|date=2012|page=69|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306193001/https://books.google.rs/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA69|archive-date=6 March 2016|isbn=9780262305129|access-date=7 September 2016}}
*{{Cite book|title=Dictionary of Genocide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA249|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|date=2008|page=249|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306190516/https://books.google.rs/books?id=rgGA91skoP4C&pg=PA249|archive-date=6 March 2016|isbn=9780313346422|access-date=7 September 2016}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA)|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kosovo-Liberation-Army|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|date=2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906171517/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kosovo-Liberation-Army|archive-date=6 September 2015}}
*{{cite magazine|title=Albanian Insurgents Keep NATO Forces Busy|url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,101938,00.html|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=6 March 2001|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226173544/http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,101938,00.html|archive-date=26 December 2016}}</ref> had prevailed over the Rugova's non-violent resistance movement and launched attacks against the Yugoslav Army and Serbian police in Kosovo, resulting in the [[Kosovo War]].<ref name="rogel"/><ref>Rama, Shinasi A. [http://www.alb-net.com/amcc/cgi-bin/viewnews.cgi?newsid985323600,53297, The Serb-Albanian War, and the International Community's Miscalculations] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429172242/http://www.alb-net.com/amcc/cgi-bin/viewnews.cgi?newsid985323600,53297, |date=29 April 2009}}. ''The International Journal of Albanian Studies'', 1 (1998), pp. 15–19.</ref>

By 1998, international pressure compelled Yugoslavia to sign a ceasefire and partially withdraw its security forces. Events were to be monitored by [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE) observers according to an agreement negotiated by [[Richard Holbrooke]]. The ceasefire did not hold and fighting resumed in December 1998, culminating in the [[Račak massacre]], which attracted further international attention to the conflict.<ref name="rogel"/> Within weeks, a multilateral international conference was convened and by March had prepared a draft agreement known as the [[Rambouillet Accords]], calling for the restoration of Kosovo's autonomy and the deployment of [[NATO]] [[peacekeeping]] forces. The Yugoslav delegation found the terms unacceptable and refused to sign the draft. Between 24 March and 10 June 1999, [[1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|NATO intervened]] by bombing Yugoslavia, aiming to force Milošević to withdraw his forces from Kosovo,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm|title=Operation Allied Force|publisher=NATO|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912233627/http://www.nato.int/kosovo/all-frce.htm|archive-date=12 September 2016}}</ref> though NATO could not appeal to any particular motion of the [[Security Council of the United Nations]] to help legitimise its intervention. Combined with continued skirmishes between Albanian guerrillas and Yugoslav forces the conflict resulted in a further massive displacement of population in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/partners/PARTNERS/3bb051c54.pdf|title=NATO and Humanitarian Action in the Kosovo Crisis|author1=Larry Minear|author2=Ted van Baarda|author3=Marc Sommers|year=2000|publisher=[[Brown University]]|access-date=23 February 2008|archive-date=26 February 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226204541/http://www.unhcr.org/partners/PARTNERS/3bb051c54.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Missing Men of Krusha e Madhe (Burrat e Krushes se Madhe).jpg|thumb|[[Kosovo Albanians|Kosovar Albanian]] soldiers holding pictures in memory of the men who were killed or went missing in the [[Krusha massacres]]]]
[[File:Bllace refugee camp.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Kosovo Albanian refugees during the Kosovo War, presented as evidence at the trial of Slobodan Milošević.]]

During the conflict, between 848,000 and 863,000 ethnic Albanians fled or were forcefully driven from Kosovo and an additional 590,000 were internally displaced.<ref>{{cite web |date=2000 |title=The Kosovo Report |url=https://www.law.umich.edu/facultyhome/drwcasebook/Documents/Documents/The%20Kosovo%20Report%20and%20Update.pdf |website=law.umich.edu |publisher=United Nations |page=43}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jenne |first1=Erin K. |date=2010 |title=Barriers to Reintegration after Ethnic Civil Wars: Lessons from Minority Returns and Restitution in the Balkans |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232967037 |journal=Civil Wars |volume=12 |issue=4 |page=382 |doi=10.1080/13698249.2010.534622}}</ref> Some sources claim that this [[ethnic cleansing]] of Albanians was part of a plan known as [[Operation Horseshoe]], described as "Milosevic's final solution to the Kosovo problem".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lambeth |first1=Benjamin S. |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1365/RAND_MR1365.pdf |title=NATO's Air War for Kosovo: A Strategic and Operational Assessment |date=2001 |publisher=RAND Corporation |isbn=0-8330-3050-7 |page=9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 June 2000 |title=KOSOVO: THE MILITARY CAMPAIGN |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmfaff/28/2811.htm |access-date=14 June 2024 |website=[[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freedman |first1=Lawrence |date=2000 |title=Victims and victors: reflections on the Kosovo War |url=https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/8671289.pdf |journal=Review of International Studies |volume=26 |issue=3 |page=351 |doi=10.1017/S0260210500003351}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Beaumont |first1=Peter |last2=Wintour |first2=Patrick |last3=Bird |first3=Chris |last4=Henley |first4=John |last5=Hooper |first5=John |date=1999-07-17 |title=Milosevic and Operation Horseshoe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/jul/18/balkans8 |access-date=2024-08-03 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Although the existence and implementation of this operation have not been proven,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolfgram |first=Mark |date=June 2008 |title=Democracy and Propaganda: NATO's War in Kosovo |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0267323108089220 |journal=European Journal of Communication |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=153–171 |doi=10.1177/0267323108089220 |s2cid=143132309 |access-date=28 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="Greenhill">{{cite book |last1=Greenhill |first1=Kelly M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dpPHnMur3y4C&pg=PA133 |title=Weapons of Mass Migration: Forced Displacement, Coercion, and Foreign Policy |date=2011 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=9780801457425 |pages=132–133}}</ref> it closely describes the situation with of the Albanian victims and refugees in neighboring countries.
In 1999 more than 11,000 deaths were reported to the office of the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] prosecutor [[Carla Del Ponte]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/514828.stm |title=World: Europe UN gives figure for Kosovo dead |work=BBC News |date=10 November 1999 |access-date=5 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420192736/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/514828.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010}}</ref> {{As of|2010}}, some 3,000 people were still missing, including 2,500 Albanians, 400 Serbs and 100 [[Romani people|Roma]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/781310.stm |title=3,000 missing in Kosovo |author=KiM Info-Service |date=7 June 2000 |work=BBC News |access-date=5 January 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420192727/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/781310.stm |archive-date=20 April 2010}}</ref> By June, Milošević agreed to a foreign military presence in Kosovo and the withdrawal of his troops. During the [[Kosovo War]], over 90,000 Serbian and other non-Albanian refugees fled the province. In the days after the Yugoslav Army withdrew, over 80,000 Serb and other non-Albanian civilians (almost half of 200,000 estimated to live in Kosovo) were expelled from Kosovo, and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/|title=Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo|date=August 1999|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015122541/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/|archive-date=15 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wkQ3I6GyClEC&pg=PA29|title=After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States|date=2012|page=30|isbn=9780230201316|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101051745/https://books.google.com/books?id=wkQ3I6GyClEC&pg=PA29|archive-date=1 January 2016|last1=Hudson|first1=Robert|last2=Bowman|first2=Glenn|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/3ae6b80f2c.html|title=Kosovo Crisis Update|date=4 August 1999|publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016002408/http://www.unhcr.org/3ae6b80f2c.html|archive-date=16 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osce.org/odihr/21342?download=true|title=Forced Expulsion of Kosovo Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians from OSCE Participated state to Kosovo|date=6 October 2006|publisher=[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126062302/http://www.osce.org/odihr/21342?download=true|archive-date=26 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="Wills">{{cite book|author=Siobhán Wills|title=Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqQ7kBrlSAC&pg=PA219|access-date=24 February 2013|date=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-953387-9|page=219|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606104524/http://books.google.com/books?id=QoqQ7kBrlSAC&pg=PA219|archive-date=6 June 2013}}</ref> After the Kosovo and other [[Yugoslav Wars]], Serbia became home to the highest number of refugees and [[Internally displaced person|IDPs]] (including Kosovo Serbs) in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society.php?yyyy=2011&mm=06&dd=20&nav_id=75016|title=Serbia home to highest number of refugees and IDPs in Europe|date=20 June 2010|publisher=[[B92]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326082532/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society.php?yyyy=2011&mm=06&dd=20&nav_id=75016|archive-date=26 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osce.org/serbia/24323?download=true|title=Serbia: Europe's largest proctracted refugee situation|date=2008|publisher=[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326082139/http://www.osce.org/serbia/24323?download=true|archive-date=26 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=el-YZHB8hzYC&pg=PP1|title=Shaping South East Europe's Security Community for the Twenty-First Century: Trust, Partnership, Integration|date=2013|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|page=169|editor1-first=Sharyl|editor1-last=Cross|editor2-first=Savo|editor2-last=Kentera|editor3-first=R. Craig|editor3-last=Nation|editor4-first=Radovan|editor4-last=Vukadinović|isbn=9781137010209|access-date=31 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326082403/https://books.google.rs/books?id=el-YZHB8hzYC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1|archive-date=26 March 2017}}</ref>[[File:Kosovo-metohija-koreni-duse029.jpg|thumb|left|Serbian and other children refugees, Cernica, Gjilan.]]

In some villages under Albanian control in 1998, militants drove ethnic Serbs from their homes.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} Some of those who remained are unaccounted for and are presumed to have been abducted by the KLA and killed. The KLA detained an estimated 85 Serbs during its 19 July 1998 [[attack on Rahovec]]. 35 of these were subsequently released but the others remained. On 22 July 1998, the KLA briefly took control of the Belaćevac mine near the town of Obiliq. Nine Serb mineworkers were captured that day and they remain on the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]]'s list of the missing and are presumed to have been killed.<ref name="hrw.org">{{cite web|title=Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|date=August 1999|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015122541/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/|archive-date=15 October 2012}}</ref> In August 1998, 22 Serbian civilians were reportedly killed in the village of Klečka, where the police claimed to have discovered human remains and a kiln used to cremate the bodies.<ref name="hrw.org" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cpa.org.au/garchive/949kla.htm |title=Kosovo, drugs and the West |access-date=27 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911190307/http://www.cpa.org.au/garchive/949kla.htm |website=The Guardian |date=14 April 1999 |archive-date=11 September 2007}}</ref> In September 1998, Serbian police collected 34 bodies of people believed to have been seized and murdered by the KLA, among them some ethnic Albanians, at Lake Radonjić near Glođane (Gllogjan) in what became known as the [[Lake Radonjić massacre]].<ref name="hrw.org" /> Human Rights Watch have raised questions about the validity of at least some of these allegations made by Serbian authorities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/kosovo/undword-01.htm|title=UNDER ORDERS: War Crimes in Kosovo – 2. Background|website=www.hrw.org|access-date=28 May 2019|archive-date=7 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407112036/https://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/kosovo/undword-01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Monumenti Heroinat në Prishtinë.jpg|thumb|200px|"[[Heroinat Memorial|Heroinat]]" (Heroines) monument in [[Pristina]]. It is dedicated to women victims of sexual violence perpetrated by Serbian forces, during the Kosovo War, of which the vast majority were Albanian women<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-13 |title="Wounds that burn our souls": Compensation for Kosovo's wartime rape survivors, but still no justice |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur70/7558/2017/en/ |access-date=2023-07-25 |website=Amnesty International |language=en |archive-date=25 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725132034/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/eur70/7558/2017/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecuted crimes committed during the Kosovo War. Nine senior Yugoslav officials, including Milošević, were indicted for [[crime against humanity|crimes against humanity]] and [[war crimes]] committed between January and June 1999. Six of the defendants were convicted, one was acquitted, one died before his trial could commence, and one (Milošević) died before his trial could conclude.<ref name="icty">{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/sid/10095|title=ICTY&nbsp;– TPIY : Judgement List|publisher=icty.org|access-date=3 March 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301030130/http://www.icty.org/sid/10095|archive-date=1 March 2014}}</ref> Six KLA members were charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes by the ICTY following the war, and one was convicted.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/cis/en/cis_limaj_al_en.pdf |title=ICTY.org |access-date=28 April 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827083654/http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/cis/en/cis_limaj_al_en.pdf |archive-date=27 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/haradinaj/cis/en/cis_haradinaj_al_en.pdf |title=ICTY.org |access-date=28 April 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301212926/http://www.icty.org/x/cases/haradinaj/cis/en/cis_haradinaj_al_en.pdf |archive-date=1 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/ind/en/lim-2ai040212e.pdf|title=Second Amended Indictment&nbsp;– Limaj et al|publisher=Icty.org|access-date=20 July 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726171431/http://www.icty.org/x/cases/limaj/ind/en/lim-2ai040212e.pdf|archive-date=26 July 2011}}</ref><ref name="Haradinaj cleared">{{cite news|title=Kosovo ex-PM Ramush Haradinaj cleared of war crimes|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20536318|access-date=29 November 2012|work=BBC News|date=29 November 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129170103/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-20536318|archive-date=29 November 2012}}</ref>

In total around 10,317 civilians were killed during the war, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others in addition to 3,218 killed members of armed formations.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.kosovomemorybook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Expert_Evaluation_of_Kosovo_Memory_Book_Database_Prishtina_04_02_2015.pdf |title= Kosovo Memory Book Database Presentation and Expert Evaluation | website = Kosovo Memory Book 1998-2000 |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111055051/http://www.kosovomemorybook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Expert_Evaluation_of_Kosovo_Memory_Book_Database_Prishtina_04_02_2015.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Postwar ===
{{Main|United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|Kosovo status process|l2=Status process of Kosovo}}
{{See also|Provisional Institutions of Self-Government}}

[[File:Clintons visit Stenkovic 1 Refugee Camp.jpg|upright|thumb|left|US President [[Bill Clinton]] with Albanian children during his visit to Kosovo, June 1999.]]

On 10 June 1999, the UN Security Council passed [[UN Security Council Resolution 1244]], which placed Kosovo under transitional UN administration (UNMIK) and authorised [[Kosovo Force]] (KFOR), a NATO-led peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 provided that Kosovo would have autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and affirmed the [[territorial integrity]] of Yugoslavia, which has been legally succeeded by the Republic of Serbia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Resolution 1244 (1999) |date=17 June 1999 |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/371562.stm |access-date=19 February 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407233507/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/371562.stm |archive-date=7 April 2008}}</ref>

Estimates of the number of Serbs who left when Serbian forces left Kosovo vary from 65,000<ref>European Stability Initiative (ESI): [http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_53.pdf The Lausanne Principle: Multiethnicity, Territory and the Future of Kosovo's Serbs (.pdf)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324234708/http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_53.pdf |date=24 March 2009}}, 7 June 2004.</ref> to 250,000.<ref>Coordinating Centre of Serbia for Kosovo-Metohija: [https://web.archive.org/web/20040416201639/http://www.serbia.sr.gov.yu/coordination_centre/index.html Principles of the program for return of internally displaced persons from Kosovo and Metohija].</ref> Within post-conflict Kosovo Albanian society, calls for retaliation for previous violence done by Serb forces during the war circulated through public culture.<ref name="Herscher14">{{harvnb|Herscher|2010|p=14}}.</ref> Widespread attacks against Serbian cultural sites commenced following the conflict and the return of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanian refugees to their homes.<ref name="Riedlmayer11">{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.sense-agency.com/assets/kosovo/sg-6-06-riedlmayer-foreword-interfaith-eng.pdf|title=Introduction in Destruction of Islamic Heritage in the Kosovo War, 1998–1999|author=András Riedlmayer|page=11|access-date=29 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712133659/http://heritage.sense-agency.com/assets/kosovo/sg-6-06-riedlmayer-foreword-interfaith-eng.pdf|archive-date=12 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2004, prolonged negotiations over Kosovo's future status, sociopolitical problems and nationalist sentiments resulted in the [[2004 unrest in Kosovo|Kosovo unrest]].<ref name="RauschBanar246">{{harvnb|Rausch|Banar|2006|p=246}}.</ref><ref name="Egleder79">{{harvnb|Egleder|2013|p=79}}.</ref> 11 Albanians and 16 Serbs were killed, 900 people (including peacekeepers) were injured, and several houses, public buildings and churches were damaged or destroyed.

International negotiations began in 2006 to determine the final status of Kosovo, as envisaged under [[UN Security Council Resolution 1244]]. The UN-backed talks, led by UN [[Diplomatic rank|Special Envoy]] [[Martti Ahtisaari]], began in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6034567.stm UN frustrated by Kosovo deadlock] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307072437/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6034567.stm |date=7 March 2016}} ", ''BBC News'', 9 October 2006.</ref>

In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft [[United Nations Security Council Resolution|UN Security Council Resolution]] which proposed 'supervised independence' for the province. A draft resolution, backed by the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and other European members of the [[Security Council]], was presented and rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/06/29/nb-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702211016/http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/06/29/nb-07|archive-date=2 July 2007 |title=Russia reportedly rejects fourth draft resolution on Kosovo status |author=Southeast European Times |date=29 June 2007 |access-date=24 July 2009}}</ref>

Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, had stated that it would not support any resolution which was not acceptable to both Belgrade and Kosovo Albanians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/07/10/nb-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012154347/http://setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/newsbriefs/setimes/newsbriefs/2007/07/10/nb-02|archive-date=12 October 2007 |title=UN Security Council remains divided on Kosovo |author=Southeast European Times |date= 10 July 2007 |access-date=24 July 2009}}</ref> Whilst most observers had, at the beginning of the talks, anticipated independence as the most likely outcome, others have suggested that a rapid resolution might not be preferable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/985caa90-de5a-11db-afa7-000b5df10621.html?nclick_check=1 |title=A long reconciliation process is required |author=James Dancer |date=30 March 2007 |website=Financial Times |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208151642/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/985caa90-de5a-11db-afa7-000b5df10621.html?nclick_check=1 |archive-date=8 February 2008}}</ref>

After many weeks of discussions at the UN, the United States, United Kingdom and other European members of the Security Council formally 'discarded' a draft resolution backing Ahtisaari's proposal on 20 July 2007, having failed to secure Russian backing. Beginning in August, a "[[wikt:troika|Troika]]" consisting of negotiators from the European Union ([[Wolfgang Ischinger]]), the United States ([[Frank G. Wisner]]) and Russia (Alexander Botsan-Kharchenko) launched a new effort to reach a status outcome acceptable to both Belgrade and Pristina. Despite Russian disapproval, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France appeared likely to recognise Kosovar independence.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2209907,00.html |title=Bosnian nightmare returns to haunt EU |author=Simon Tisdall |date=13 November 2007 |work=The Guardian |location=UK |access-date=15 December 2016 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171451/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2007/nov/13/international.mainsection |url-status=live}}</ref> A declaration of independence by Kosovar Albanian leaders was postponed until the end of the [[2008 Serbian presidential election|Serbian presidential elections]] (4 February 2008). A significant portion of politicians in both the EU and the US had feared that a premature declaration could boost support in Serbia for the nationalist candidate, [[Tomislav Nikolić]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6386467.stm |title=Europe, Q&A: Kosovo's future |work=BBC News |date=11 July 2008 |access-date=20 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123190828/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6386467.stm |archive-date=23 January 2009}}</ref>

In November 2001, the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] supervised the [[2004 Kosovar parliamentary election|first elections]] for the [[Assembly of Kosovo]].<ref>"[http://www.osce.org/kosovo/13208.html OSCE Mission in Kosovo&nbsp;– Elections] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509143621/http://www.osce.org/kosovo/13208.html |date=9 May 2008}} ", Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe</ref> After that election, Kosovo's political parties formed an all-party unity coalition and elected [[Ibrahim Rugova]] as president and [[Bajram Rexhepi]] (PDK) as Prime Minister.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1846264.stm Power-sharing deal reached in Kosovo] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160825081955/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1846264.stm |date=25 August 2016}}", [[BBC News]], 21 February 2002.</ref> After Kosovo-wide elections in October 2004, the LDK and AAK formed a new governing coalition that did not include PDK and Ora. This coalition agreement resulted in [[Ramush Haradinaj]] (AAK) becoming Prime Minister, while Ibrahim Rugova retained the position of President. PDK and Ora were critical of the coalition agreement and have since frequently accused that government of corruption.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publicinternationallaw.org/docs/BW2005/Balkan_Watch.11April_05.pdf |title=Publicinternationallaw.org |access-date=28 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121041814/http://www.publicinternationallaw.org/docs/BW2005/Balkan_Watch.11April_05.pdf |archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref>

[[2007 Kosovar parliamentary election|Parliamentary elections]] were held on 17 November 2007. After early results, [[Hashim Thaçi]] who was on course to gain 35 per cent of the vote, claimed victory for PDK, the [[Democratic Party of Kosovo]], and stated his intention to declare independence. Thaçi formed a coalition with president [[Fatmir Sejdiu]]'s [[Democratic League of Kosovo|Democratic League]] which was in second place with 22 percent of the vote.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7179850.stm Kosovo gets pro-independence PM] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408184153/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7179850.stm |date=8 April 2008}}", BBC News, 9 January 2008.</ref> The turnout at the election was particularly low. Most members of the Serb minority refused to vote.<ref>[http://www.euronews.net/index.php?page=info&article=454473&lng=1 EuroNews: Ex-guerilla chief claims victory in Kosovo election] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080206035607/http://www.euronews.net/index.php?page=info&article=454473&lng=1 |date=6 February 2008}}. Retrieved 18 November 2007.</ref>

=== Declaration of independence ===
{{Main|2008 Kosovo declaration of independence}}
{{See also|International recognition of Kosovo}}

[[File:Gebäude der UNMIK NEW BORN SIGN PRISTINA KOSOVO Giv Owned Image 23 August 2008.jpg|thumb|The [[Newborn monument]] unveiled at the celebration of the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence proclaimed earlier that day, 17 February 2008, [[Pristina]].]]
[[File:Hashim Thaci Joe Biden Fatmir Sejdiu with Declaration of Independence of Kosovo.JPG|thumb|The [[Prime Minister of Kosovo|prime minister of Kosovo]] [[Hashim Thaçi]], then-[[Vice President of the United States|U.S. Vice President]] [[Joe Biden]] and the [[president of Kosovo]] [[Fatmir Sejdiu]] with the [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|Declaration of Independence of Kosovo]].]]
Kosovo declared independence from [[Serbia]] on 17 February 2008.<ref name="bbc_proclaim">"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7249034.stm Kosovo MPs proclaim independence] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215131649/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7249034.stm |date=15 February 2009}}", [[BBC News Online]], 17 February 2008.</ref> {{Numrec|Kos|asof=S||UN states}} recognised its independence, including all of its immediate neighbours, with the exception of Serbia;<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7662149.stm BBC News] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203110112/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7662149.stm |date=3 February 2016}}. Retrieved 10 October 2008.</ref> 10 states have subsequently withdrawn that recognition.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://rs.n1info.com/English/NEWS/a546106/Dacic-says-95-countries-do-not-recognise-Kosovo-as-state-after-Nauru-s-withdrawal.html | title=Nauru withdraws recognition of Kosovo's independence, Pristina denies | publisher=N1 | date=22 November 2019 | access-date=18 April 2020 | archive-date=13 May 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513073923/http://rs.n1info.com/English/NEWS/a546106/Dacic-says-95-countries-do-not-recognise-Kosovo-as-state-after-Nauru-s-withdrawal.html | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://prishtinainsight.com/serbia-claims-sierra-leone-has-withdrawn-kosovo-recognition/ | title=Serbia claims Sierra Leone has withdrawn Kosovo recognition | publisher=Prishtina Insight | date=3 March 2020 | access-date=18 April 2020 | archive-date=22 April 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422142329/https://prishtinainsight.com/serbia-claims-sierra-leone-has-withdrawn-kosovo-recognition/ | url-status=live}}</ref> Of the UN Security Council members, while the US, UK and France do recognise Kosovo's independence, Russia and China do not.<ref name="voa_serbia_kosovo_agreement">{{cite web |title=US-Brokered Serbia-Kosovo Deal a 'Step Forward' But Challenges Remain |url=https://www.voanews.com/europe/us-brokered-serbia-kosovo-deal-step-forward-challenges-remain |date=September 5, 2020 |last=Kostreci |first=Keida |website=Voice of America |access-date=September 7, 2020 |archive-date=7 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907223628/https://www.voanews.com/europe/us-brokered-serbia-kosovo-deal-step-forward-challenges-remain |url-status=live}}</ref> Since declaring independence, it has become a member of international institutions such as the [[International Monetary Fund]] and [[World Bank]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/ms/2009/062409.htm |title=Republic of Kosovo&nbsp;– IMF Staff Visit, Concluding Statement |publisher=Imf.org |date=24 June 2009 |access-date=20 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629132600/http://www.imf.org/external/np/ms/2009/062409.htm |archive-date=29 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/0,,pagePK:180619~theSitePK:136917,00.html#k |title=World Bank Cauntries |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060716000650/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/0,,pagePK:180619~theSitePK:136917,00.html#k |archive-date=16 July 2006}}</ref> though not of the United Nations.

The Serb minority of Kosovo, which largely opposes the declaration of independence, has formed the [[Community of Serb Municipalities|Community Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija]] in response. The creation of the assembly was condemned by Kosovo's President Fatmir Sejdiu, while UNMIK has said the assembly is not a serious issue because it will not have an operative role.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2008/06/30/feature-01 |title=Kosovo Serbs convene parliament; Pristina, international authorities object |publisher=SETimes.com |date=30 June 2008 |access-date=20 July 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090113180251/http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2008/06/30/feature-01 |archive-date=13 January 2009}}</ref>
On 8 October 2008, the UN General Assembly resolved, on a proposal by Serbia, to ask the [[International Court of Justice]] to render an advisory opinion on the legality of Kosovo's declaration of independence. The advisory opinion, which is not binding over decisions by states to recognise or not recognise Kosovo, was rendered on 22 July 2010, holding that Kosovo's declaration of independence was not in violation either of general principles of [[international law]], which do not prohibit unilateral declarations of independence, nor of specific international law&nbsp;– in particular UNSCR 1244&nbsp;– which did not define the final status process nor reserve the outcome to a decision of the Security Council.<ref name="icj-cij">{{cite web|url=http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=4&code=kos&case=141&k=21|title=Advisory Proceedings&nbsp;&#124;&nbsp;International Court of Justice|publisher=icj-cij.org|access-date=3 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208141833/http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=4&code=kos&case=141&k=21|archive-date=8 February 2014}}</ref>

Some rapprochement between the two governments took place on 19 April 2013 as both parties reached the [[Brussels Agreement (2013)|Brussels Agreement]], an agreement brokered by the EU that allowed the Serb minority in Kosovo to have its own police force and court of appeals.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22222624|title=Serbia and Kosovo reach EU-brokered landmark accord|work=BBC News|date=19 April 2013|access-date=6 October 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008021737/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22222624|archive-date=8 October 2014}}</ref> The agreement is yet to be ratified by either parliament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.srbija.gov.rs/vesti/vest.php?id=93685|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006095629/http://www.srbija.gov.rs/vesti/vest.php?id=93685|archive-date=6 October 2014|title=Belgrade, Pristina initial draft agreement |website=Serbian government website|access-date=6 October 2014}}</ref> Presidents of Serbia and Kosovo organised two meetings, in [[Brussels]] on 27 February 2023 and [[Ohrid]] on 18 March 2023, to create and agree upon an 11-point agreement on implementing a European Union-backed deal to normalise ties between the two countries, which includes recognising "each other's documents such as passports and license plates".<ref>{{cite news |title=Serbia, Kosovo agree on implementation of EU-backed agreement to normalize ties |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/serbia-kosovo-agree-on-implementation-of-eu-backed-agreement-to-normalize-ties/2849709 |newspaper=[[Anadolu Agency]] |date=19 March 2023 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=19 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319075130/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/serbia-kosovo-agree-on-implementation-of-eu-backed-agreement-to-normalize-ties/2849709 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A number of protests and demonstrations took place in Kosovo between [[2021 North Kosovo crisis|2021]] and [[North Kosovo crisis (2022–present)|2023]], some of which involved weapons and resulted in deaths on both sides. Amongst the injured were 30 NATO peacekeepers. The main reason behind the 2022–23 demonstrations ended on 1 January 2024 when each country recognised each other's vehicle registration plates.

== Governance ==
{{Main|Politics of Kosovo}}
{{See also|Government of Kosovo|Human rights in Kosovo}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; float:right; margin-right:9px; margin-left:2px;"
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | [[File:Vjosa Osmani1.jpg|137px]]
| style="text-align:left;" | [[File:Albin Kurti (2023-02-18).jpg|123px]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Vjosa Osmani]]<br />{{Small|[[President of Kosovo|President]]}}
| style="text-align:center;" | [[Albin Kurti]]<br />{{Small|[[Prime Minister of Kosovo|Prime Minister]]}}
|}

Kosovo is a [[multi-party system|multi-party]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[parliamentary republic|republic]]. It is governed by [[legislative]], [[Executive (government)|executive]] and [[Judiciary|judicial]] institutions, which derive from the [[Constitution of Kosovo|constitution]], although, until the [[Brussels Agreement (2013)|Brussels Agreement]], North Kosovo was in practice largely controlled by institutions of Serbia or parallel institutions funded by Serbia. Legislative functions are vested in both the [[Assembly of Kosovo|Parliament]] and the ministers within their competencies. The [[Government of Kosovo|Government]] exercises the executive power and is composed of the [[Prime Minister of Kosovo|Prime Minister]] as the [[head of government]], the Deputy Prime Ministers and the Ministers of the various ministries.

The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court and subordinate courts, a [[Constitutional Court of Kosovo|Constitutional Court]], and independent prosecutorial institutions. There also exist multiple independent institutions defined by the constitution and law, as well as local governments. All citizens are equal before the law and [[gender equality]] is ensured by the constitution.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WX4hAwAAQBAJ&q=kosovo%20no%20official%20religion&pg=PA167|title=The Road to Independence for Kosovo: A Chronicle of the Ahtisaari Plan|first=Henry H. Jr. |last=Perritt|date=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|via=Google Books|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216082458/https://books.google.com/books?id=WX4hAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA167&lpg=PA167#v=onepage&q=kosovo%20no%20official%20religion|archive-date=16 February 2018|isbn=9781139479431}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1vU9p9ftlsC&q=kosovo%20constitution%20article%207&pg=PA235|title=Legislating for Equality: A Multinational Collection of Non-Discrimination Norms. Volume I: Europe|first1=Talia|last1=Naamat|first2=Dina|last2=Porat|first3=Nina|last3=Osin|date=2012|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|via=Google Books|isbn=978-9004226128|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=7 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171429/https://books.google.com/books?id=R1vU9p9ftlsC&q=kosovo+constitution+article+7&pg=PA235|url-status=live}}</ref> The Constitutional Framework guarantees a minimum of ten seats in the 120-member Assembly for Serbs, and ten for other minorities, and also guarantees Serbs and other minorities places in the Government.

The [[President of Kosovo|president]] serves as the [[head of state]] and represents the unity of the people, elected every five years, indirectly by the parliament through a [[secret ballot]] by a two-thirds majority of all deputies. The head of state is invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. The president has the power to return draft legislation to the parliament for reconsideration and has a role in foreign affairs and certain official appointments.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |title=Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016), chapter V |via=constituteproject.org |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102154102/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Prime Minister of Kosovo|Prime Minister]] serves as the [[head of government]] elected by the parliament. Ministers are nominated by the Prime Minister, and then confirmed by the parliament. The head of government exercises executive power of the territory.

Corruption is a major problem and an obstacle to the development of democracy in the country. Those in the judiciary appointed by the government to fight corruption are often government associates. Moreover, prominent politicians and party operatives who commit offences are not prosecuted due to the lack of laws and political will. Organised crime also poses a threat to the economy due to the practices of bribery, extortion and racketeering.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=David L. |title=Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Diplomacy and U. S. Intervention |date=2012 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-26230-512-9 |page=211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA211 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803022449/https://books.google.com/books?id=X5sa90AEvi0C&pg=PA211 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Kosovo}}

The [[foreign relations of Kosovo]] are conducted through the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Kosovo)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] in [[Pristina]]. {{as of|2023}}, 104 out of 193 [[United Nations]] member states [[International recognition of Kosovo|recognise]] the Republic of Kosovo. Within the [[European Union member states|European Union]], it is recognised by 22 of 27 members and is a [[Accession of Kosovo to the European Union|potential candidate]] for the [[future enlargement of the European Union]].<ref>[http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics.php?yyyy=2012&mm=11&dd=26&nav_id=83353 EU 5 "less likely than ever" to recognize Kosovo] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917212253/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics.php?yyyy=2012&mm=11&dd=26&nav_id=83353 |date=17 September 2014}} "B92&nbsp;– News", Retrieved 31 March 2014.</ref><ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/detailed-country-information/kosovo/index_en.htm Kosovo] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120828041606/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/countries/detailed-country-information/kosovo/index_en.htm |date=28 August 2012}}. ec.europa.eu.</ref> On 15 December 2022 Kosovo filed a formal application to become a member of the European Union.<ref name="dw10">{{cite web |title=Kosovo formally applies for EU membership |website=[[Deutsche Welle]] |url=https://www.dw.com/en/kosovo-formally-applies-for-eu-membership/a-64110674 |access-date=15 December 2022 |archive-date=16 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216090121/https://www.dw.com/en/kosovo-formally-applies-for-eu-membership/a-64110674 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Kosovo is a member of several international organisations including the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[World Bank]], [[International Road and Transport Union]], Regional Cooperation Council, [[Council of Europe Development Bank]], [[Venice Commission]] and [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]].<ref name="Will the EBRD do the right thing?">{{cite news|title=Will the EBRD do the right thing for Kosovo, its newest member?|url=http://www.neurope.eu/blog/will-ebrd-do-right-thing-kosovo-its-newest-member/|access-date=11 February 2013|publisher=neurope.eu|date=10 February 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212081804/http://www.neurope.eu/blog/will-ebrd-do-right-thing-kosovo-its-newest-member|archive-date=12 February 2013}}</ref> In 2015, Kosovo's bid to become a member of [[UNESCO]] fell three votes short of the two-thirds majority required to join.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/09/kosovo-fails-in-unesco-membership-bid |title=Kosovo fails in UNESCO membership bid |newspaper=Guardian |date=9 November 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022143509/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/09/kosovo-fails-in-unesco-membership-bid |archive-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> 23 countries maintain [[List of diplomatic missions in Kosovo|embassies]] in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,50|title=Foreign Missions in Kosovo|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kosovo|access-date=28 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506184551/http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,50|archive-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> Kosovo maintains 24 [[List of diplomatic missions of Kosovo|diplomatic missions]] and 28 consular missions abroad.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,49 |title=Embassies of the Republic of Kosovo |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kosovo |access-date=28 April 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513211823/http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,49 |archive-date=13 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,67|title=Consular Missions of the Republic of Kosovo|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kosovo|access-date=28 April 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513154127/http://www.mfa-ks.net/?page=2,67|archive-date=13 May 2016}}</ref>

The [[Albania–Kosovo relations|relations with Albania]] are in a special case considering that both countries share the same language and culture. The [[Albanian language]] is one of the [[Languages of Kosovo|official languages]] of Kosovo. [[Albania]] has an embassy in the capital [[Pristina]] and Kosovo an embassy in [[Tirana]]. In 1992, Albania was the only country whose parliament voted to recognise the [[Republic of Kosova]]. [[Albania]] was also one of the first countries to officially announce its recognition of the Republic of Kosovo in February 2008.

From 1 January 2024 Kosovo nationals became exempt from visa requirements within the [[Schengen Area]] for periods of up to 90 days in any 180-day period.<ref>{{cite web |title=European Parliament Votes to Scrap Visa Regime for Kosovo Citizens |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2023/04/18/european-parliament-votes-to-scrap-visa-regime-for-kosovo-citizens/#:~:text=Kosovo%20citizens%20will%20be%20able,in%20any%20180%2Dday%20period. |date=18 April 2023 |access-date=19 July 2023 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719105702/https://balkaninsight.com/2023/04/18/european-parliament-votes-to-scrap-visa-regime-for-kosovo-citizens/#:~:text=Kosovo%20citizens%20will%20be%20able,in%20any%20180%2Dday%20period. |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Law ===
{{Main|Law of Kosovo}}

[[File:KP-PK During Kosovo Independence Parade.JPG|thumb|The [[Kosovo Police]] is the main law enforcement agency in Kosovo.]]

The [[Judiciary of Kosovo|judicial system of Kosovo]] follows a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] framework and comprises regular civil and criminal courts, alongside administrative courts. Administered by the [[Kosovo Judicial Council|judicial council]] in Pristina, the system includes the supreme court as the highest judicial authority, a [[Constitutional Court of Kosovo|constitutional court]] and an independent prosecutorial institution. Following the independence of Kosovo in 2008, the [[Kosovo Police]] assumed the primary law enforcement responsibilities within the country.

Covering a broad range of issues related to the status of Kosovo, the [[Ahtisaari Plan]] introduced two forms of international supervision for Kosovo following its independence, including the [[International Civilian Office]] (ICO) and the [[EULEX|European Union Rule of Law Mission to Kosovo]] (EULEX).<ref>{{citation |publisher=[[United Nations Security Council]] (UNSC) |title=Letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council |date=26 March 2007 |at=Annex |url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/retrieveattachments?openagent&shortid=YZHG-6ZNTVS&file=Full_Report.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20071214235411/http%3A//www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWFiles2007.nsf/FilesByRWDocUnidFilename/YZHG%2D6ZNTVS%2Dfull_report.pdf/%24File/full_report.pdf |archive-date=14 December 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ICO monitored plan implementation and possessed veto powers, while EULEX focused on developing judicial systems and had arrest and prosecution authority. These bodies were granted powers under Kosovo's declaration of independence and constitution.

The legal status of the ICO depended upon the de facto situation and Kosovo legislation, with oversight provided by the [[International Steering Group]] (ISG) comprising states that recognied Kosovo. Serbia and non-recognising states did not acknowledge the ICO. Despite initial opposition, EULEX gained acceptance from Serbia and the UN Security Council in 2008. It operated under the UNMIK mandate with operational independence. The ICO concluded operations in 2012 after fulfilling obligations, while EULEX continues to operate within Kosovo and international law. Its role has been extended, primarily focusing on monitoring with reduced responsibilities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2018/06/08/eulex-kosovo-new-role-for-the-eu-rule-of-law-mission/ |title=EULEX Kosovo: new role for the EU rule of law mission |publisher=European Council |date=2018-06-08 |access-date=2021-02-12 |archive-date=3 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203161823/https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2018/06/08/eulex-kosovo-new-role-for-the-eu-rule-of-law-mission/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

According to the Global Safety Report by [[Gallup, Inc.|Gallup]], which assesses personal security worldwide through the Law and Order Index Scores for 2023, Kosovo has distinguished itself by ranking among the top ten countries globally in terms of perceived safety and law enforcement effectiveness.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Gallup, Inc.|Gallup]] |title=The Global Safety Report 2024 |url=https://insightcrime.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Gallup_Global-Safety-Report-2024.pdf |access-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002092551/https://insightcrime.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Gallup_Global-Safety-Report-2024.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2024 |page=17 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Military ===
{{Main|Kosovo Security Force}}

[[File:Kosovo Security Force FSK-KSF.jpg|thumb|The [[Kosovo Security Force]] is the military of Kosovo.]]

The [[Kosovo Security Force]] (KSF) is the national security force of Kosovo commissioned with the task of preserving and safeguarding the country's territorial integrity, national sovereignty and the security interests of its population.<ref name="KSF">{{cite web |publisher=[[Prime Minister of Kosovo]] |title=Constitution of Kosovo |url=http://www.kryeministri-ks.net/repository/docs/Constitution1Kosovo.pdf |access-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616221845/http://www.kryeministri-ks.net/repository/docs/Constitution1Kosovo.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2009 |page=47 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Functioning under the president of Kosovo as the [[commander-in-chief]], the security force adheres to the principle of non-discrimination, guaranteeing equal protection for its personnel regardless of gender or ethnicity.<ref name="KSF"/><ref>{{cite act |title=Law on Service in the Kosovo Security Force |number=Law No. 03/L-082 |date=13 June 2008 |article=Article 3, Section 3(a) |url=http://www.mksf-ks.org/repository/docs/Law%20on%20Service%20in%20the%20KSF.pdf |access-date=7 July 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504213923/http://mksf-ks.org/repository/docs/Law%20on%20Service%20in%20the%20KSF.pdf |archive-date=4 May 2016 }}</ref> Kosovo's notable challenges are identified in the realms of persistent conflicts and societal safety and security, both of which are intertwined with the country's diplomatic ties to neighboring countries and its domestic social and political stability.<ref>{{cite book |publisher=[[Institute for Economics and Peace]] (IEP) |title=Global Peace Index 2020: Measuring Peace in a Complex World |url=http://visionofhumanity.org/reports |access-date=8 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319170234/http://visionofhumanity.org/reports/ |archive-date=19 March 2017 |format=PDF  |place=Sydney |year=2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The '''Kosovo Force''' ('''KFOR''') is a [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]]-led international [[NATO peacekeeping|peacekeeping force]] in Kosovo.<ref name="Small-Arms-Survey">{{cite journal |last1=Khakee |first1=Anna |last2=Florquin |first2=Nicolas |date=1 June 2003 |title=Kosovo: Difficult Past, Unclear Future |url=https://www.smallarmssurvey.org/sites/default/files/resources/SAS-SR03-Kosovo.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Kosovo and the Gun: A Baseline Assessment of Small Arms and Light Weapons in Kosovo |location=[[Pristina]], [[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo]] and [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]] |publisher=[[Small Arms Survey]] |volume=10 |pages=4–6 |doi= |jstor=resrep10739.9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630150030/https://www.smallarmssurvey.org/sites/default/files/resources/SAS-SR03-Kosovo.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2022 |access-date=3 March 2023 |quote=Kosovo—while still formally part of the so-called [[State Union of Serbia and Montenegro]] dominated by [[Serbia]]—has, since the war, been a United Nations protectorate under the [[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo]] (UNMIK). [...] However, members of the [[Kosovo Serbs|Kosovo Serb]] minority of the territory (circa 6–7 per cent in 2000) have, for the most part, not been able to return to their homes. For security reasons, the remaining [[Serbian enclaves in Kosovo|Kosovo Serb enclaves]] are, in part, isolated from the rest of Kosovo and protected by the multinational [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]]-led '''Kosovo Force''' ('''KFOR''').}}</ref> Its operations are gradually reducing until [[Kosovo Security Force|Kosovo's Security Force]], established in 2009, becomes self-sufficient.<ref name="NATO's role in Kosovo">{{cite web |title=NATO's role in Kosovo |url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_48818.htm |website=nato.int |access-date=6 December 2018 |date=29 November 2018}}</ref> KFOR entered Kosovo on 12 June 1999,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_48818.htm|title=NATO's role in Kosovo|website=nato.int|language=en|access-date=2024-06-12}}</ref> one day after the [[United Nations Security Council]] adopted the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244|UNSC Resolution 1244]]. [[Camp Bondsteel]] is the operation headquarters of the [[Kosovo Force]] (KFOR) in Kosovo. It is located near [[Ferizaj]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Philips |first=John |title=Macedonia: Warlords and Rebels in the Balkans |publisher=I.B.Tauris |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-86064-841-0 |page=171}}</ref> in southeastern Kosovo. It is the Regional Command-East headed by the [[United States Army]] (U.S. Army) and it is supported by troops from [[Greece]], [[Italy]], [[Finland]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]], [[Slovenia]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Turkey]].

In 2008, under the leadership of NATO, the Kosovo Force (KFOR) and the [[Kosovo Protection Corps]] (KPC) undertook preparations for the formation of the Kosovo Security Force. A significant milestone occurred in 2014 when the government officially announced its decision to establish a Ministry of Defence by 2019, with the aim of transforming the existing Kosovo Security Force into the Kosovo Armed Forces. This transformation would entail aligning the armed forces with the high standards expected of NATO members, reflecting Kosovo's aspiration to join the alliance in the future.<ref>{{cite news|title=Kosovo to create national army of 5,000 soldiers|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-kosovo-army-idUKBREA231E620140304|access-date=28 May 2014|work=Reuters|date=4 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140309202553/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/03/04/uk-kosovo-army-idUKBREA231E620140304|archive-date=9 March 2014}}</ref> Subsequently, in December 2018, the government enacted legislation to redefine the mandate of the Kosovo Security Force, effecting its transformation into an army. Concurrently, the establishment of a Ministry of Defence was set in motion, further solidifying these developments and ensuring the necessary infrastructure and oversight for the newly formed armed forces.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shehu |first=Bekim |url=https://p.dw.com/p/3A6U7 |title=Kosova bëhet me ushtri |language=sq |work=Deutsche Welle |date=2018-12-14 |access-date=2020-09-13 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171432/https://www.dw.com/sq/kosova-b%C3%ABhet-me-ushtri/a-46737219 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2023, the Kosovo Security Force had over 5,000 active members, using vehicles and weapons acquired from a number of NATO countries. KFOR continues to operate in Kosovo under its UN mandate.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Federal Armed Forces to continue their participation in the Kosovo peace mission in Kosovo |url=https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/news/kfor-mission-extension-2187936 |date=3 May 2023 |access-date=9 September 2023 |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930150307/https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/news/kfor-mission-extension-2187936 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Administrative divisions ==
{{Main|Districts of Kosovo}}
{{See also|Municipalities of Kosovo}}

Kosovo is divided into seven [[Districts of Kosovo|districts]] ({{langx|sq|rajon}}; {{lang-sr-Latn|okrug}}), according to the Law of Kosovo and the Brussels Agreement of 2013, which stipulated the formation of new municipalities with Serb majority populations. The districts are further subdivided into 38 [[Municipalities of Kosovo|municipalities]] ({{lang|sq|komunë}}; {{lang|sr-Latn|opština}}). The largest and most populous district of Kosovo is the [[District of Pristina]] with the capital in [[Pristina]], having a surface area of {{convert|2470|km2|sqmi|lk=off|abbr=on|sigfig=5}} and a population of 477,312.

{| align=center cellspacing="3px"
|- style="font-size:98%; text-align:center;"
|
{{Kosovo Districts}}
|
|
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="margin-top:7px; margin-right:0; text-align:left; font-size:90%;"
|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:right;"
! <!--style="width:120/75/75/85px"--> [[Districts of Kosovo|Districts]] !! Seat !! Area (km<sup>2</sup>)!! Population
|-
| [[District of Peja]] || [[Peja]] || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 1,365 || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 174,235
|-
| [[District of Mitrovica]] || [[Mitrovica, Kosovo|Mitrovica]] || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 2,077 || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 272,247
|-
| [[District of Pristina]] || [[Pristina]] || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 2,470 || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 477,312
|-
| [[District of Gjilan]] || [[Gjilan]] || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 1,206 || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 180,783
|-
| [[District of Gjakova]] || [[Gjakova]] || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 1,129 || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 194,672
|-
| [[District of Prizren]] || [[Prizren]] || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 1,397 || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 331,670
|-
| [[District of Ferizaj]] || [[Ferizaj]] || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 1,030 || style="text-align:right;padding-right:2px"| 185,806
|-
|}
|
|
|}
{{Clear}}

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Kosovo}}

[[File:Dromodol hill in Rugova - Paradise Lost.jpg|thumb|Landscape in [[Rugova (region)|Rugova]] within the [[Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park]] bordering [[Albania]].]]

Defined in a total area of {{convert|10887|km2|0|abbr=off}}, Kosovo is [[landlocked country|landlocked]] and located in the center of the [[Balkan Peninsula]] in [[Southeastern Europe]]. It lies between latitudes [[42nd parallel north|42°]] and [[43rd parallel north|43° N]], and longitudes [[20th meridian east|20°]] and [[22nd meridian east|22° E]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[The World Factbook]] |title=Europe: Kosovo–The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204144331/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The northernmost point is Bellobërda at 43° 14' 06" northern latitude; the southernmost is [[Restelicë]] at 41° 56' 40" northern latitude; the westernmost point is [[Bogë, Kosovo|Bogë]] at 20° 3' 23" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is [[Desivojca]] at 21° 44' 21" eastern longitude. The highest point of Kosovo is [[Gjeravica]] at {{convert|2656|m|ft}} [[Metres above sea level|above sea level]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Warrander |first1=Gail |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GCRjKdrmqqEC |title=Kosovo |last2=Knaus |first2=Verena |date=2007 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-199-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Elsie |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pg-aeA-nUeAC |title=Historical Dictionary of Kosovo |date=2010-11-15 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7483-1 |language=en |access-date=16 December 2023 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117101441/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pg-aeA-nUeAC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Highest peaks of 4 countries |url=https://bnadventure.com/products/highest-peaks-of-4-countries/ |access-date=2023-12-16 |website=Balkans Hiking {{!}} Peaks of the balkans and more |language=en |archive-date=16 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216203010/https://bnadventure.com/products/highest-peaks-of-4-countries/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the lowest is the [[White Drin]] at {{convert|297|m|ft}}.

Most of the borders of Kosovo are dominated by mountainous and high terrain. The most noticeable [[Topography|topographical]] features are the [[Accursed Mountains]] and the [[Šar Mountains]]. The Accursed Mountains are a geological continuation of the [[Dinaric Alps]]. The mountains run laterally through the west along the border with [[Albania]] and [[Montenegro]]. The southeast is predominantly the Šar Mountains, which constitute the border with [[North Macedonia]]. Besides the mountain ranges, Kosovo's territory consists mostly of two major plains, the [[Kosovo Plain]] in the east and the [[Metohija|Metohija Plain]] in the west.

Additionally, Kosovo consists of multiple geographic and ethnographic regions, such as [[Drenica]], [[Dushkaja]], [[Gollak]], [[Has (region)|Has]], [[Highlands of Gjakova]], [[Llap (region)|Llap]], [[Llapusha]] and [[Rugova (region)|Rugova]].

Kosovo's hydrological resources are relatively small; there are few [[lake]]s in Kosovo, the largest of which are [[Lake Batllava]], [[Badovc Lake]], [[Lake Gazivoda]], [[Lake Radoniq]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=VISIT KOSOVO |url=https://visitkosovo.rks-gov.net/blog/Liqenet |access-date=30 June 2023 |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630171002/https://visitkosovo.rks-gov.net/blog/Liqenet |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.instat.gov.al/ |title=Istitue of Statistics, Albania |access-date=7 March 2022 |archive-date=10 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190210091104/http://www.instat.gov.al/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to these, Kosovo also does have [[karst springs]], [[Thermal water|thermal]] and mineral water springs.<ref name="ICMMt">[http://www.kosovo-mining.org/kosovoweb/en/kosovo/hydrology.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403195114/http://www.kosovo-mining.org/kosovoweb/en/kosovo/hydrology.html|date=2015-04-03}} Independent Commission for Mines and Minerals of Kosovo</ref> The longest rivers of Kosovo include the [[White Drin]], the [[South Morava]] and the [[Ibar River|Ibar]]. [[Sitnica]], a tributary of Ibar, is the largest river lying completely within Kosovo's territory. [[Nerodime River|Nerodime river]] represents Europe's only instance of a river bifurcation flowing into the [[Black Sea]] and [[Aegean Sea]].
{{Clear}}

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Kosovo}}

[[File:Ostërvice from Brezovica.jpg|thumb|[[Alpine climate]] in [[Pashallora]] as seen from [[Brezovica, Kosovo|Brezovica]].]]

Most of Kosovo experiences predominantly a [[Continental climate]] with [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] and [[Alpine climate|Alpine]] influences,<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[University of Gothenburg]] |title=Kosovo Environment and Climate Analysis |url=https://sidaenvironmenthelpdesk.se/wordpress3/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Environmental-policy-brief-Kosovo-2008.pdf |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028225601/https://sidaenvironmenthelpdesk.se/wordpress3/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Environmental-policy-brief-Kosovo-2008.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2018 |page=3 |date=11 March 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> strongly influenced by Kosovo's proximity to the [[Adriatic Sea]] in the west, the [[Aegean Sea]] in the south as well as the European continental landmass in the north.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Sustainicum Collection |title=Overview: Climate Change in Albania and Kosovo |url=https://www.sustainicum.at/files/projects/358/en/handouts/PlanBound_handout_ClimateChange.pdf |access-date=24 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924095806/https://www.sustainicum.at/files/projects/358/en/handouts/PlanBound_handout_ClimateChange.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2020 |page=1 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The coldest areas are situated in the mountainous region to the west and southeast, where an Alpine climate is prevalent. The warmest areas are mostly in the extreme southern areas close to the border with Albania, where a Mediterranean climate is the norm. Mean monthly temperature ranges between {{convert|0|°C|°F|lk=on}} (in January) and {{convert|22|°C|°F|lk=off}} (in July). Mean annual precipitation ranges from {{convert|600|to|1300|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year, and is well distributed year-round.

To the northeast, the [[Kosovo Plain]] and [[Ibar (river)|Ibar Valley]] are drier with total precipitation of about {{convert|600|mm|abbr=off}} per year and more influenced by continental air masses, with colder winters and very hot summers. In the southwest, climatic area of [[Metohija]] receives more mediterranean influences with warmer summers, somewhat higher precipitation ({{convert|700|mm|in|abbr=on}}) and heavy snowfalls in the winter. The mountainous areas of the [[Accursed Mountains]] in the west, [[Šar Mountains]] on the south and [[Kopaonik]] in the north experiences alpine climate, with high precipitation ({{convert|900|to|1300|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year), short and fresh summers, and cold winters.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Independent Commission for Mines and Minerals of Kosovo |title=Climatic Conditions |url=https://www.kosovo-mining.org/kosovoweb/en/kosovo/climate.html |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516231747/https://www.kosovo-mining.org/kosovoweb/en/kosovo/climate.html |archive-date=16 May 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The average annual temperature of Kosovo is {{convert|9.5|C|F}}. The warmest month is July with average temperature of {{convert|19.2|C|F}}, and the coldest is January with {{convert|-1.3|C|F}}. Except [[Prizren]] and [[Istog]], all other meteorological stations in January recorded average temperatures under {{convert|0|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite book|first=Riza |last=Çavolli |year=1993 |page=23 |title=Gjeografia e Kosovës}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Biodiversity of Kosovo}}
{{See also|Protected areas of Kosovo}}

[[File:Parku Kombëtar Bjeshkët Nemuna , Liqeni i madh ne Liqenat , Rugove.jpg|thumb|[[Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park]] is home to a wide range of flora and fauna species.]]

Located in [[Southeastern Europe]], Kosovo receives floral and faunal species from Europe and [[Eurasia]]. Forests are widespread in Kosovo and cover at least 39% of the region. [[Phytogeographically]], it straddles the [[Illyria]]n province of the [[Circumboreal Region]] within the [[Boreal Kingdom]]. In addition, it falls within three terrestrial ecoregions: [[Balkan mixed forests]], [[Dinaric Mountains mixed forests]], and [[Pindus Mountains mixed forests]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287}}</ref> Kosovo's biodiversity is conserved in two [[national park]]s, eleven [[nature reserve]]s and one hundred three other protected areas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Veselaj |first1=Zeqir |last2=Mustafa |first2=Behxhet |title=Overview of Nature Protection Progress in Kosovo |url=https://www.landscapeonline.de/wp-content/uploads/DOI103097-LO201545.pdf |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721165525/https://www.landscapeonline.de/wp-content/uploads/DOI103097-LO201545.pdf |archive-date=21 July 2018 |date=28 December 2015 |page=6 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Bjeshkët e Nemuna National Park]] and [[Sharr Mountains National Park (Kosovo)|Sharr Mountains National Park]] are the most important regions of vegetation and biodiversity in Kosovo.<ref name="Maxhuni">{{cite web |last1=Maxhuni |first1=Qenan |title=Biodiversiteti i Kosovës |url=https://www.ammk-rks.net/repository/docs/Biodiversiteti_i_Kosoves.pdf |access-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802214537/https://www.ammk-rks.net/repository/docs/Biodiversiteti_i_Kosoves.pdf |archive-date=2 August 2020 |language=sq |url-status=live}}</ref> Kosovo had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 5.19/10, ranking it 107th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |s2cid=228082162|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Flora]] encompasses more than 1,800 species of [[vascular plant]] species, but the actual number is estimated to be higher than 2,500 species.<ref name="KOSOVObio">{{cite web|title=Kosovo Biodiversity Assessment|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnact349.pdf|website=pdf.usaid.gov|pages=15–16|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303232722/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACT349.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Biodiversity conservation status in the Republic of Kosovo with focus on biodiversity centres|url=http://www.jeb.co.in/journal_issues/201204_apr12_supp/paper_04.pdf|website=jeb.co.in|page=1|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020033206/http://www.jeb.co.in/journal_issues/201204_apr12_supp/paper_04.pdf|archive-date=20 October 2017}}</ref> The diversity is the result of the complex interaction of geology and hydrology creating a wide variety of habitat conditions for flora growth. Although, Kosovo represents only 2.3% of the entire surface area of the [[Balkans]], in terms of vegetation it has 25% of the Balkan flora and about 18% of the European flora.<ref name="KOSOVObio"/> The fauna is composed of a wide range of species.<ref name=Maxhuni/>{{rp|14}} The mountainous west and southeast provide a great habitat for several [[Rare species|rare]] or [[endangered species]] including [[brown bear]]s, [[lynx]]es, [[wild cat]]s, [[wolve]]s, [[fox]]es, [[wild goat]]s, [[roe deer|roebucks]] and [[deer]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kosovo Biodiversity Assessment|url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnact349.pdf|website=pdf.usaid.gov|page=17|language=sq|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303232722/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACT349.pdf|archive-date=3 March 2017}}</ref> A total of 255 species of [[bird]]s have been recorded, with raptors such as the [[golden eagle]], [[eastern imperial eagle]] and [[lesser kestrel]] living principally in the mountains of Kosovo.

=== Environmental issues ===

Environmental issues in Kosovo include a wide range of challenges pertaining to [[Air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution]], [[Climate change in Kosovo|climate change]], [[waste management]], [[Conservation biology|biodiversity loss]] and [[nature conservation]].<ref name="EIKOS">{{cite web |publisher=[[Ministry of Environment, Spatial Planning and Infrastructure of Kosovo]] (MESP) |title=Climate Change Strategy 2019{{spaced ndash}}2028 {{!}} Action Plan on Climate Change 2019{{spaced ndash}}2021 |url=https://konsultimet.rks-gov.net/Storage/Consultations/14-13-59-04102018/Climate%20Change%20Strategy%20and%20Action%20Plan_sep_2018.pdf |access-date=26 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626182211/https://konsultimet.rks-gov.net/Storage/Consultations/14-13-59-04102018/Climate%20Change%20Strategy%20and%20Action%20Plan_sep_2018.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The vulnerability of the country to climate change is influenced by various factors, such as increased temperatures, geological and hydrological [[hazard]]s, including droughts, flooding, fires and rains.<ref name="EIKOS"/> Kosovo is not a signatory to the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC), the [[Kyoto Protocol]] or the [[Paris Agreement]].<ref name="KOSCP">{{cite web |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) |title=Climate Promise: Kosovo |url=https://climatepromise.undp.org/what-we-do/where-we-work/kosovo |access-date=26 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626184133/https://climatepromise.undp.org/what-we-do/where-we-work/kosovo |archive-date=26 June 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Consequently, the country is not mandated to submit a [[Nationally determined contribution|Nationally Determined Contribution]] (NDC) that are voluntary commitments outlining a nation's actions and strategies for mitigating climate change and adapting to its impacts.<ref name="KOSCP"/> However, since 2021, Kosovo is actively engaged in the process of formulating a voluntary NDC, with assistance provided from Japan.<ref name="KOSCP"/><ref name="IMFKOS">{{cite web |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) |title=Republic of Kosovo: Request for Stand-By Arrangement and an Arrangement Under the Resilience and Sustainability Facility-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Republic of Kosovo |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2023/06/06/Republic-of-Kosovo-Request-for-Stand-By-Arrangement-and-an-Arrangement-Under-the-Resilience-534337 |access-date=26 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230626184956/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2023/06/06/Republic-of-Kosovo-Request-for-Stand-By-Arrangement-and-an-Arrangement-Under-the-Resilience-534337 |archive-date=26 June 2023 |date=7 June 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, the country has established a goal of reducing [[greenhouse gas emissions]] by approximately 16.3% as part of its broader objective to achieve [[carbon neutrality]] by the year 2050.<ref name="IMFKOS"/>
{{Clear}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Kosovo}}
{{Further|Languages of Kosovo|Demographic history of Kosovo}}

[[File:Population of Kosovo (1921-2015).png|thumb|upright=1.25|The population of Kosovo from 1921 to 2015.]]

The [[Kosovo Agency of Statistics|Agency of Statistics]] estimated Kosovo's population in 2021 to be approximately 1,774,000.<ref name="Chapter 1">{{cite web |author1=Kosovo Agency of Statistics |title=Estimation of Kosovo population 2021 |url=https://ask.rks-gov.net/en/kosovo-agency-of-statistics/add-news/population-assessment-2021#:~:text=The%20population%20in%20Kosovo%20for,971%20resident%20inhabitants. |location=Pristina |language=en |author1-link=Kosovo Agency of Statistics |access-date=18 November 2022 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117225230/https://ask.rks-gov.net/en/kosovo-agency-of-statistics/add-news/population-assessment-2021.pdf#:~:text=The%20population%20in%20Kosovo%20for,971%20resident%20inhabitants. |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2023, the overall [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] at birth is 79.68 years; 77.38 years for males and 81.87 years for females.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Life Expectancy of Kosovo (under UNSC res. 1244) 1950-2023 & Future Projections |url=https://database.earth/population/Kosovo%20(under%20UNSC%20res.%201244)growth-rate |access-date=2023-06-18 |website=database.earth |language=en }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The estimated [[total fertility rate]] in 2023 is 1.88 children born per woman.<ref name=cia_fb2023>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Kosovo|access-date=15 August 2023|year=2023}}</ref> The country is the [[Balkans#Demographics|11th most populous country]] in the [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern Europe]] ([[Balkans]]) and ranks as the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|148th most populous country]] in the world. The country's population rose steadily over the 20th century and peaked at an estimated 2.2 million in 1998. The [[Kosovo War]] and subsequent migration have decreased the population of Kosovo over time.  
[[File:Kosovo ethnic map 2011 census.GIF|thumb|Distribution of ethnic groups within Kosovo, as of the 2011 census.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethnic composition of Kosovo 2011 |url=http://pop-stat.mashke.org/kosovo-ethnic-loc2011.htm |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=pop-stat.mashke.org}}</ref>|left]]
In 2019, [[Kosovo Albanians|Albanians]] constituted 92% of the population of Kosovo, followed by ethnic [[Kosovo Serbs|Serbs]] (4%), [[Bosniaks in Kosovo|Bosniaks]] (2%), [[Turks in Kosovo|Turks]] (1%), [[Romani people in Kosovo|Romani]] (1%), and the [[Gorani people|Gorani]] (<1%).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/kosovo-population/ |title=Kosovo Population 2019 |work=World Population Review |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190728020418/http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/kosovo-population/ |archive-date=28 July 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Albanians constitute the majority of the population in most of Kosovo. Ethnic Serbs are concentrated in [[North Kosovo|the north]] of the country, as well as in [[Serbian enclaves in Kosovo|other municipalities]] in the east of the country, such as [[Gračanica, Kosovo|Gračanica]] and [[Štrpce]]. Turks form a local majority in the municipality of [[Mamusha]], just north of Prizren, while the Bosniaks are mainly located within Prizren itself. The Gorani are concentrated in the southernmost tip of the country, in [[Dragash]]. The Romani are spread across the entire country.

The [[official language]]s of Kosovo are [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[Serbian language|Serbian]]<ref name="bein12">{{cite web |title=LANGUAGES SPOKEN IN KOSOVO |url=https://www.beinkosovo.com/languages-spoken-in-kosovo/ |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219194519/https://www.beinkosovo.com/languages-spoken-in-kosovo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the institutions are committed to ensure the equal use of those two official languages of Kosovo.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo |url=https://gzk.rks-gov.net/ActDetail.aspx?ActID=3702 |access-date=June 9, 2022 |website=Constitution of the Republic of Kosovo |archive-date=6 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806185048/https://gzk.rks-gov.net/ActDetail.aspx?ActID=3702 |url-status=live }}</ref> Municipal civil servants are only required to speak one of the two languages in a professional setting and, according to Language Commissioner of Kosovo Slaviša Mladenović, no government organisation has all of its documents available in both languages.<ref name="ECMI-Kosovo Language Commissioner">{{cite web|url=http://www.infoecmi.eu/index.php/kosovo-language-commissioner-trainings/|title=Kosovo Language Commissioner lauds trainings|publisher=[[European Centre for Minority Issues]]|access-date=29 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034740/http://www.infoecmi.eu/index.php/kosovo-language-commissioner-trainings/|archive-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> The Law on the Use of Languages gives [[Turkish language|Turkish]] the status of an official language in the municipality of [[Prizren]], irrespective of the size of the [[Turks of Kosovo|Turkish community]] living there.<ref name="COE-Municipalities">{{cite web|url=http://www.osce.org/kosovo/120010?download=true|title=Municipal language compliance in Kosovo, June 2014|publisher=[[Council of Europe]]|format=PDF|access-date=29 June 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703120903/http://www.osce.org/kosovo/120010?download=true|archive-date=3 July 2015}}</ref> Otherwise, [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] and [[Romani language|Roma]] hold the status of official languages at municipal level if the linguistic community represents at least 5% of the total population of municipality.<ref name="langauges">{{Cite web |title=Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016), article 5 |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |via=constituteproject.org |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102154102/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="COE-Municipalities"/> Albanian is spoken as a [[first language]] by all Albanians, as well as some of the Romani people, such as the [[Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians]]. Serbian, Bosnian, and Turkish are spoken as first languages by their respective communities.

According to the [[World Happiness Report]] 2024, which evaluates the happiness levels of citizens in various countries, Kosovo is currently ranked 29th among a total of 143 nations assessed.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[World Happiness Report]] (WHR) |title=World Happiness Report 2024: Happiness of the younger, the older, and those in between |url=https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2024/happiness-of-the-younger-the-older-and-those-in-between/#ranking-of-happiness-2021-2023 |access-date=11 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911095847/https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2024/happiness-of-the-younger-the-older-and-those-in-between/#ranking-of-happiness-2021-2023 |archive-date=11 September 2024 |date=20 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The relations between [[Kosovo Albanians|Kosovar Albanians]] and [[Kosovo Serbs|Kosovar Serbs]] have been hostile since the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 19th century.<ref name="Schabnel, Albrecht 2001. Pp. 20">Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur (ed), Ramesh (ed). ''Kosovo and the Challenge of Humanitarian Intervention: Selective Indignation, Collective Action, and International Citizenship'', New York: The United Nations University, 2001. p. 20.</ref> During Communism in Yugoslavia, the ethnic Albanians and Serbs were strongly irreconcilable, with sociological studies during the Tito-era indicating that ethnic Albanians and Serbs rarely accepted each other as neighbors or friends and few held inter-ethnic marriages.<ref name="Schabnel, Albrecht 2001. Pp. 24">Schabnel, Albrecht; Thakur (ed), Ramesh (ed), 2001. p. 24.</ref> Ethnic prejudices, stereotypes and mutual distrust between ethnic Albanians and Serbs have remained common for decades.<ref name="Schabnel, Albrecht 2001. Pp. 24"/> The level of intolerance and separation between both communities during the Tito-period was reported by sociologists to be worse than that of Croat and Serb communities in Yugoslavia, which also had tensions but held some closer relations between each other.<ref name="Schabnel, Albrecht 2001. Pp. 24"/>

Despite their planned integration into the Kosovar society and their recognition in the Kosovar constitution, the [[Romani people|Romani]], Ashkali, and Egyptian communities continue to face many difficulties, such as segregation and discrimination, in housing, education, health, employment and social welfare.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dissidentvoice.org/Articles/Rifati_Kosovo.htm |title=The Roma and "Humanitarian" Ethnic Cleansing in Kosovo |publisher=Dissidentvoice.org |access-date=19 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521004009/http://dissidentvoice.org/Articles/Rifati_Kosovo.htm |archive-date=21 May 2010}}</ref> Many camps around Kosovo continue to house thousands of [[internally displaced people]], all of whom are from minority groups and communities.<ref>{{cite web|author=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) – Norwegian Refugee Council |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpCountries)/165F03EE03E9D015C1257662005CE095?opendocument&count=10000 |title=IDMC, Internally Displaced persons (IDPs) in Kosovo |publisher=Internal-displacement.org |access-date=19 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521044236/http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/%28httpCountries%29/165F03EE03E9D015C1257662005CE095?OpenDocument&count=10000 |archive-date=21 May 2010}}</ref> Because many of the Roma are believed to have sided with the Serbs during the conflict, taking part in the widespread looting and destruction of Albanian property, [[Minority Rights Group International]] report that Romani people encounter hostility by Albanians outside their local areas.<ref>{{cite web|author=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) – Norwegian Refugee Council |url=http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/(httpEnvelopes)/B4A8E121B6EA5BBB802570B8005AA863?OpenDocument|title=IDMC: Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre, Countries, Kosovo, Roma, Ashkaelia and Egyptians in Kosovo (2006) |publisher=Internal-displacement.org |access-date=19 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514140932/http://www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004CE90B/%28httpEnvelopes%29/B4A8E121B6EA5BBB802570B8005AA863?OpenDocument|archive-date=14 May 2011}}</ref> A 2020 research report funded by the EU shows that there is a limited scale of trust and overall contact between the major ethnic groups in Kosovo.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020|title=Index of ethnic stereotypes in Kosovo|website=kcs-ks.org|url=https://kcr-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Index-ENG-stereotypes.pdf|access-date=20 July 2020|archive-date=20 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720222406/https://kcr-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Index-ENG-stereotypes.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

{|class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:left; width:97%; margin-right:10px; font-size:90%"
|+Largest [[Municipalities of Kosovo|municipalities]] by population (2024)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population and housing census in Kosovo - Preliminary results - July 2024 |url=https://askapi.rks-gov.net/Custom/1d268e37-5934-4bd5-bbd1-34a9965cff92.pdf |publisher=Kosovo Agency of Statistics |access-date=3 August 2024}}</ref>
|-
!rowspan=23 width:150|<br />
{{center|[[File:Prishtina nga Katedrala 1.jpg|180px|Pristina]]<br />[[Pristina]]<br />}}
{{center|[[File:37 Prizreni - Xhamia e Sinan Pashës - The Sinan Pasha Moscue.JPG|180px|Prizren]]<br />[[Prizren]]<br />}}
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Rank
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Municipality
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Population
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Rank
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Municipality
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Population
!rowspan=23 width:150|<br />
{{center|[[File:Xhami dhe Kishë Orthodokse.jpg|165px|Ferizaj]]<br />[[Ferizaj]]<br />}}
{{center|[[File:Peja..JPG|165px|Peja]]<br />[[Peja]]<br />}}
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 1 ||align=left|'''[[Pristina]]''' || 227,154 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 11 ||align=left|'''[[Lipjan]]'''|| 54,974
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 2 ||align=left|'''[[Prizren]]''' || 147,428 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 12 ||align=left|'''[[Drenas]]''' || 48,054
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 3 ||align=left|'''[[Ferizaj]]''' || 109,345 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 13 ||align=left|[[Suva Reka|'''Suharekë''']]|| 45,713
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 4 ||align=left|'''[[Gjilan]]'''|| 82,901 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 14 ||align=left|'''[[Malisheva]]''' || 43,871
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 5 ||align=left|'''[[Peja]]'''|| 82,661 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 15 ||align=left|'''[[Rahovec]]''' || 41,777
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 6 ||align=left|'''[[Gjakova]]''' || 78,824 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 16 ||align=left|'''[[Skenderaj]]''' || 40,632
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 7 ||align=left|'''[[Podujevë]]''' || 71,018 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 17 ||align=left|[[Viti, Kosovo|'''Viti''']]|| 35,549
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 8 ||align=left|'''[[Mitrovica, Kosovo|Mitrovica]]''' || 64,680 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 18 ||align=left|'''[[Istog]]''' || 33,066
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 9 ||align=left|'''[[Kosovo Polje]]'''|| 64,078 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 19 ||align=left|'''[[Klina]]''' || 30,574
|-
|style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"| 10 ||align=left|'''[[Vushtrri]]''' || 61,493 || style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;" | 20 ||align=left|'''[[Dragash]]''' || 28,908
|-
| colspan="6" style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|
|}
{{Clear}}

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Kosovo}}

{{bar box
| title     = Religion in Kosovo<ref name=factbook/>
| titlebar  = #ddd
| float     = right
| bars      =
{{bar percent|[[Islam|Muslim]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghaffar |first=Mughal Abdul |title=Muslims in Kosovo: A Socio-economic and Demographic Profile: Is the Muslim Population Exploding? |journal=Balkan Social Science Review |date=30 December 2015 |volume=6 |pages=155–201 |url=https://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/view/1258 |access-date=20 December 2021 |archive-date=20 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220190456/https://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/view/1258 |url-status=live}}</ref>|Green|95.6}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity|Christian]]|Yellow|3.7}}
{{bar percent|{{spaced ndash}}[[Roman Catholic]]|Yellow|2.2}}
{{bar percent|{{spaced ndash}}[[Eastern Orthodox]]|Orange|1.5}}
{{bar percent|[[Irreligion|Non-religious]]|Blue|0.1}}
{{bar percent|Other|Beige|0.1}}
{{bar percent|Unspecified|Violet|0.1}}
}}

Kosovo is a [[secular state]] with no [[state religion]]; [[freedom of belief]], [[Freedom of conscience|conscience]] and [[Freedom of religion|religion]] is explicitly guaranteed in the [[Constitution of Kosovo]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kosovo's Constitution of 2008 (with Amendments through 2016), article 8 |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |via=constituteproject.org |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-date=2 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191102154102/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Kosovo_2016.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceB"/> Kosovar society is strongly [[secularised]] and is ranked first in [[Southern Europe]] and ninth in the world as free and equal for tolerance towards [[religion]] and [[atheism]].<ref>{{cite book |author1=Olivier Roy, Arolda Elbasani |title=The Revival of Islam in the Balkans: From Identity to Religiosity |publisher=Springer |isbn=9781137517845 |page=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4F9OCgAAQBAJ&q=secular&pg=PA72 |language=en |date=2015 |access-date=1 November 2020 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307171441/https://books.google.com/books?id=4F9OCgAAQBAJ&q=secular&pg=PA72 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Freedom of Thought 2014 report (map)|url= http://freethoughtreport.com/map/|publisher= Freedom of Thought|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171010131440/http://freethoughtreport.com/map/|archive-date= 10 October 2017|df= dmy-all|access-date= 8 September 2015}}</ref>

In the 2011 census, 95.6% of the population of Kosovo was counted as [[Muslim]] and 3.7% as [[Christians|Christian]] including 2.2% as [[Roman Catholic]] and 1.5% as [[Eastern Orthodox]].<ref name="factbook">{{cite web |date=19 June 2014 |title=World Factbook–Kosovo |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204144331/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |archive-date=4 February 2021 |access-date=30 January 2014 |publisher=[[The World Factbook]]}}</ref> The remaining 0.3% of the population reported having no religion, or another religion, or did not provide an adequate answer. Protestants, although recognised as a religious group in Kosovo by the government, were not represented in the census. The census was largely boycotted by the [[Kosovo Serbs]], who predominantly identify as [[Serbian Orthodox]] Christians, especially in [[North Kosovo]],<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/kosovo-census-starts-without-northern-kosovo |title=Kosovo Census to Start Without the North |author=Petrit Collaku |work=[[Balkan Insight]] |date=29 March 2011 |access-date=17 December 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925200738/https://balkaninsight.com/2011/03/29/kosovo-census-starts-without-northern-kosovo// |url-status=live}}</ref> leaving the Serb population underrepresented.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/kosovo-police-stop-illegal-serb-census-attempts-09-14-2017 |title=Kosovo Police Stop 'Illegal' Serb Census Attempts |author=Perparim Isufi |work=Balkan Insight |date=14 September 2017 |access-date=17 December 2017 |archive-date=25 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925200741/https://balkaninsight.com/2017/09/14/kosovo-police-stop-illegal-serb-census-attempts-09-14-2017// |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Islam in Kosovo|Islam]] is the most widely practiced religion in Kosovo and was introduced in the [[Middle Ages]] by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. Today, Kosovo has the second-highest number of Muslims as a percentage of its population in Europe after Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Mughal Abdul Ghaffar |title=Muslims in Kosovo: A Socio-economic and Demographic Profile: Is the Muslim Population Exploding? |url=http://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/download/1258/1058/ |website=js.ugd.edu.mk |language=en |format=PDF |access-date=24 November 2018 |archive-date=24 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124220057/http://js.ugd.edu.mk/index.php/BSSR/article/download/1258/1058/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The majority of the Muslim population of Kosovo are ethnic [[Albanians]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], and Slavs such as [[Gorani people|Gorani]] and [[Bosniaks]].<ref>{{cite news | url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm | work= BBC News | title= Muslims in Europe: Country guide | date= 23 December 2005 | url-status=live | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090126140616/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4385768.stm | archive-date= 26 January 2009 | df= dmy-all}}</ref>

Followers of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] are predominantly Albanians while ethnic Serbs follow the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. In 2008, Protestant pastor Artur Krasniqi, primate of the Kosovo Protestant Evangelical Church, claimed that "as many as 15,000" Kosovar Albanians had converted to Protestantism since 1985.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2008/12/30/conversion-rate|title=Conversion rate|date=30 December 2008|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=25 December 2018|issn=0013-0613|archive-date=5 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105000350/http://www.economist.com/node/12868180|url-status=live}}</ref>

Relations between the Albanian Muslim and Albanian Catholic communities in Kosovo are good; however, both communities have few or no relations with the [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Orthodox]] community. In general, the Albanians define their [[ethnicity]] by language and not by religion, while religion reflects a distinguishing identity feature among the Slavs of Kosovo and elsewhere.<ref>{{cite web |title=Religion in Kosovo |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/balkans/kosovo/religion-kosovo |website=crisisgroup.org |publisher=International Crisis Group |date=31 July 2001 |access-date=14 February 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214225145/https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/balkans/kosovo/religion-kosovo |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Kosovo}}

[[File:Kosovo-lignite.jpg|thumb|right|Kosovo has the fifth-largest [[lignite]] reserves in the world.]]

The [[economy of Kosovo]] is a transitional economy. It suffered from the combined results of political upheaval, the Serbian dismissal of Kosovo employees and the following [[Yugoslav Wars]]. Despite declining foreign assistance, the GDP has mostly grown since its declaration of independence. This was despite the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]] and the subsequent [[European debt crisis]]. Additionally, the [[inflation rate]] has been low. Most economic development has taken place in the trade, retail and construction sectors. Kosovo is highly dependent on remittances from the [[Albanian diaspora|diaspora]], [[foreign direct investment]], and other capital inflows.<ref name="IMF Country Report No 12/100">{{cite web |title=Republic of Kosovo: Request for Stand-By Arrangement—Staff Report; Press Release on the Executive Board Discussion. |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr12100.pdf |website=imf.org |publisher=International Monetary Fund |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924054059/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr12100.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |date=April 2012 |quote=Unemployment, around 40% of the population, is a significant problem that encourages outward migration and black market activity.}}</ref> In 2018, the [[International Monetary Fund]] reported that approximately one-sixth of the population lived below the poverty line and one-third of the working age population was unemployed, the highest rate in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |title=Republic of Kosovo: Selected Issues |date=2018 |publisher=International Monetary Fund |isbn=978-1-48434-056-1 |page=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HatMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |access-date=20 September 2020 |archive-date=28 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210528183018/https://books.google.com/books?id=HatMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Kosovo's largest trading partners are Albania, Italy, Switzerland, China, Germany and Turkey. The [[Euro currency|Euro]] is its official currency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euinkosovo.org/uk/invest/invest.php |title=Invest in Kosovo&nbsp;– EU Pillar top priorities: privatisation process and focus on priority economic reforms |publisher=Euinkosovo.org |access-date=26 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120128203427/http://www.euinkosovo.org/uk/invest/invest.php |archive-date=28 January 2012}}</ref> The [[Government of Kosovo]] has signed free-trade agreements with [[Albania]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[North Macedonia]].<ref>[http://www.b92.net/eng/news/globe-article.php?yyyy=2006&mm=10&dd=02&nav_category=123&nav_id=37090 Croatia, Kosovo sign Interim Free Trade Agreement], [[B92]], 2 October 2006 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006101521/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/globe-article.php?yyyy=2006&mm=10&dd=02&nav_category=123&nav_id=37090 |date=6 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.euinkosovo.org/upload_press/4.06%20-%20UNMIK%20and%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina%20Initial%20Free%20Trade%20Agreement%2017.2.06.pdf |title="UNMIK and Bosnia and Herzegovina Initial Free Trade Agreement". UNMIK Press Release, 17 February 2006 |website=euinkosovo.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305232527/http://euinkosovo.org/upload_press/4.06%20-%20unmik%20and%20bosnia%20and%20herzegovina%20initial%20free%20trade%20agreement%2017.2.06.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kosovo-eicc.org/oek/index.php?page_id=64|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010053451/http://www.kosovo-eicc.org/oek/index.php?page_id=64|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 October 2007|title=Oda Eknomike e Kosovės/Kosova Chambre of Commerce – Vision|date=10 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="buyusa">{{cite web|url=http://www.buyusa.gov/kosovo/en/doingbusinessinkosovo.html |title=Doing business in Kosovo |publisher=buyusa.gov |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090713042142/http://www.buyusa.gov/kosovo/en/doingbusinessinkosovo.html |archive-date=13 July 2009}}</ref> Kosovo is a member of [[Central European Free Trade Agreement|CEFTA]], agreed with [[UNMIK]], and enjoys free trade with most nearby non-[[European Union]] countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.itg-rks.com/en-us/Trade-Agreements |title=Trade Agreements |publisher=Kosovo Chamber of Commerce |access-date=23 May 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423025541/http://www.itg-rks.com/en-us/Trade-Agreements |archive-date=23 April 2014}}</ref>

Kosovo is dominated by the services sector, accounting for 54% of GDP and employing approximately 56.6% of the population.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/ec7a78a6-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/ec7a78a6-en |access-date=2023-06-06 |website=www.oecd-ilibrary.org |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606193802/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/ec7a78a6-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/ec7a78a6-en |url-status=live }}</ref> The industry accounted for 37.3% of [[GDP]] and employs roughly 24.8% of the labour force.<ref name=":3" /> There are several reasons for the stagnation, ranging from consecutive occupations, political turmoil and the [[War in Kosovo]] in 1999.<ref name="gjeografiaa77">Asllan, Pushka. "Gjeografia 12". Libri Shkollor (2005). p. 77.</ref> While agriculture accounts for only 6.6% of GDP, albeit an increase of 0.5 percentage points from 2019, it forms 18.7% of Kosovo's workforce, the highest proportion of agricultural employment in the region after [[Albania]].<ref name=":3" />

[[File:Panorama of Durres Port.jpg|thumb|right|Since 2019, the [[Port of Durrës]] in Albania on the [[Adriatic Sea]] is facilitating customs processes for cargo heading to Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Prime Minister's Office (Albania)|Kryeministria Shqipëtare]] |title=Çelet Zyra Doganore e Kosovës në Portin e Durrësit |url=https://www.kryeministria.al/newsroom/celet-zyra-doganore-e-kosoves-ne-portin-e-durresit/ |access-date=11 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230911110408/https://www.kryeministria.al/newsroom/celet-zyra-doganore-e-kosoves-ne-portin-e-durresit/ |archive-date=11 September 2023 |language=sq |date=15 January 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hammond |first=Joseph |magazine=[[Forbes]] |title=Landlocked Kosovo Opens Customs Port In Albania |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/zengernews/2022/11/12/landlocked-kosovo-opens-customs-port-in-albania/?sh=685c2476246d |access-date=11 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230911105419/https://www.forbes.com/sites/zengernews/2022/11/12/landlocked-kosovo-opens-customs-port-in-albania/?sh=685c2476246d |archive-date=11 September 2023 |date=12 November 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> A dedicated customs office for Kosovo also operates within the port facilities.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Dogana |title=The Customs Office of Kosovo Inauguration at the Port of Durres |url=https://dogana.gov.al/english/d/171/219/0/383/the-customs-office-of-kosovo-inauguration-at-the-port-of-durres |access-date=11 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230911110109/https://dogana.gov.al/english/d/171/219/0/383/the-customs-office-of-kosovo-inauguration-at-the-port-of-durres |archive-date=11 September 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Kosovo has large reserves of [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[silver]], [[nickel]], [[cobalt]], [[copper]], [[iron]] and [[bauxite]].<ref name="Natural resources key to the future">{{cite web|title=Kosovo: Natural resources key to the future, say experts|url=http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/Business/?id=1.0.1683003038|website=adnkronos.com|access-date=17 March 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707084602/http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/Business/?id=1.0.1683003038|archive-date=7 July 2011}}</ref> The nation has the fifth-largest [[lignite]] reserves in the world and the third in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lignite Mining Development Strategy|url=http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/bridges/kosovo/10/11.pdf|website=esiweb.org|language=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617082054/http://esiweb.org/pdf/bridges/kosovo/10/11.pdf|archive-date=17 June 2010|access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref> The Directorate for Mines and Minerals and the [[World Bank]] estimated that Kosovo had €13.5&nbsp;billion worth of minerals in 2005.<ref name="Kosovo's mineral resources at 13.5bn euros">{{cite web|title=World Bank survey puts Kosovo's mineral resources at 13.5bn euros|work=BBC Monitoring European|agency=KosovaLive|via=ProQuest|date=28 January 2005|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/459422903|access-date=31 August 2022|id={{ProQuest|459422903}}|archive-date=8 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008000616/https://www.proquest.com/docview/459422903|url-status=live}}</ref> The primary sector is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kosovo – Bilateral relations in agriculture|url=https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/bilateral-relations/pdf/kosovo_en.pdf|language=en|work=European Commission|date=November 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001211505/https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/bilateral-relations/pdf/kosovo_en.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2019}}</ref> 53% of the nation's area is agricultural land, 41% forest and forestry land, and 6% for others.<ref>{{cite web|title=5. Agriculture|url=http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/kosovo/SoE/agricult.htm|website=henrin.grida.no|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010131705/http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/kosovo/SoE/agricult.htm|archive-date=10 October 2017}}</ref>

[[Wine]] has historically been produced in Kosovo. The main heartland of Kosovo's wine industry is in [[Rahovec]]. The main cultivars include [[Pinot noir]], [[Merlot]], and [[Chardonnay]]. Kosovo exports wines to Germany and the United States.<ref name="Kosovo's wines flowing again">{{cite news|title=Kosovo's wines flowing again|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15401459|access-date=29 October 2011|newspaper=BBC News|date=29 October 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029172442/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15401459|archive-date=29 October 2011}}</ref> The four state-owned wine production facilities were not as much "wineries" as they were "wine factories". Only the Rahovec facility that held approximately 36% of the total vineyard area had the capacity of around 50 million litres annually. The major share of the wine production was intended for exports. At its peak in 1989, the exports from the [[Rahovec]] facility amounted to 40 million litres and were mainly distributed to the German market.<ref name="wine">{{cite web|title= Investing in Kosovo – Vineyards|url= http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/investing_in_kosovo/content/iguide_3.html|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130404212338/http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/investing_in_kosovo/content/iguide_3.html|archive-date= 4 April 2013|df= dmy-all|access-date= 15 January 2017}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
{{Main|Electrical energy in Kosovo}}

[[File:Wind Farm Bajgora Kosova.jpg|thumb|[[Bajgora Wind Farm]], the largest wind farm in Kosovo]]

The [[Electrical energy in Kosovo|electricity sector in Kosovo]] is considered one of the sectors with the greatest potential of development.<ref>{{cite web |title=Projekti Energjetik i Kosovës |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTENERGY2/Resources/Report_of_the_independent_Expert_Panel_in_ALBANIAN.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303201600/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTENERGY2/Resources/Report_of_the_independent_Expert_Panel_in_ALBANIAN.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2014 |access-date=2 March 2014 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Kosovo's electricity sector is highly dependent on coal-fired power plants, which use the abundant lignite, so efforts are being made to diversify electricity generation with more renewables sources, such as [[List of wind farms in Kosovo|wind farms in Bajgora and Kitka]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Balkan Green Energy News |date=2021-10-25 |title=Kosovo's 102.6 MW wind farm Bajgora goes on stream |url=https://balkangreenenergynews.com/kosovos-102-6-mw-wind-farm-bajgora-goes-on-stream/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Balkan Green Energy News |language=en-US |archive-date=18 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118172034/https://balkangreenenergynews.com/kosovos-102-6-mw-wind-farm-bajgora-goes-on-stream/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Todorović |first=Igor |date=2020-09-14 |title=Kitka wind farm in Kosovo* to be expanded by 20 MW |url=https://balkangreenenergynews.com/kitka-wind-farm-to-be-expanded-by-20-mw/ |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Balkan Green Energy News |language=en-US |archive-date=18 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221118172032/https://balkangreenenergynews.com/kitka-wind-farm-to-be-expanded-by-20-mw/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

A joint energy bloc between Kosovo and Albania, is in work after an agreement which was signed in December 2019.<ref>{{cite web |date=21 April 2020 |title=Kostt gains independence from Serbia |url=https://prishtinainsight.com/kostt-gains-independence-from-serbian-electricity-transmission-system/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422065634/https://prishtinainsight.com/kostt-gains-independence-from-serbian-electricity-transmission-system/ |archive-date=22 April 2020 |access-date=21 April 2020 |website=Prishtinainsight.com}}</ref> With that agreement Albania and Kosovo will now be able to exchange energy reserves, which is expected to result in €4 million in savings per year for Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web |date=21 April 2020 |title=Kosovos electricity transmission system becomes independent from serbia |url=https://exit.al/en/2020/04/21/kosovos-electricity-transmission-system-becomes-independent-from-serbia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803003247/https://exit.al/en/2020/04/21/kosovos-electricity-transmission-system-becomes-independent-from-serbia/ |archive-date=3 August 2020 |access-date=21 April 2020 |website=Exit.al}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Kosovo}}

[[File:Brezovica Ski Resort - Sharri Mountains.jpg|thumb|[[Brezovica ski resort]] is one of the best destinations for winter tourism in Kosovo.]]

The natural values of Kosovo represent quality tourism resources. The description of Kosovo's potential in tourism is closely related to its geographical location, in the center of the [[Balkan Peninsula]] in [[Southeastern Europe]]. It represents a crossroads which historically dates back to [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]. Kosovo serves as a link in the connection between [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Southern Europe]] and the [[Adriatic Sea]] and [[Black Sea]]. Kosovo is generally rich in various topographical features, including high [[mountain]]s, [[lake]]s, [[canyon]]s, steep [[rock formation]]s and [[river]]s.<ref name="turizmi" /> The mountainous west and southeast of Kosovo has great potential for winter tourism. Skiing takes place at the [[Brezovica ski resort]] within the [[Šar Mountains]],<ref name="turizmi">{{cite web|title= Investing in Kosovo|url= http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/InvestinginKosovo_2011_Web.pdf|page= 15|access-date= 27 February 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131104072918/http://www.eciks.org/english/publications/InvestinginKosovo_2011_Web.pdf|archive-date= 4 November 2013|df= dmy-all}}</ref> with the close proximity to the [[Pristina Airport]] (60&nbsp;km) and [[Skopje International Airport]] (70&nbsp;km) which is a popular destination for international tourists.

Kosovo also has lakes like [[Lake Batllava]] that serves as a popular destination for watersports, camping, and swimming.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Top 6 Best Lakes to Visit in Kosovo |url=https://toplist.info/top-list/best-lakes-to-visit-in-kosovo-8964.htm |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=toplist.info |language=en |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605190650/https://toplist.info/top-list/best-lakes-to-visit-in-kosovo-8964.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Other lakes include Ujmani Lake, [[Lake Leqinat|Liqenati Lake]], [[Zemra Lake]].<ref name=":2" />

Other major attractions include the capital, [[Pristina]], the historical cities of [[Prizren]], [[Peja]] and [[Gjakova]] but also [[Ferizaj]] and [[Gjilan]].

''[[The New York Times]]'' included Kosovo on the list of 41 places to visit in 2011.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2011/01/09/travel/09where-to-go.html | work=The New York Times | title=The 41 Places to Go in 2011 | date=7 January 2011 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111202331/http://travel.nytimes.com/2011/01/09/travel/09where-to-go.html | archive-date=11 January 2012 | df=dmy-all | access-date=20 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.diplomatmagazine.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=510&Itemid&ed=22 |title= Picturesque Kosovo | website = Diplomat | date = 2 August 2012 |access-date=16 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120804085239/http://www.diplomatmagazine.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=510&Itemid&ed=22 |archive-date=4 August 2012}}</ref>

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Kosovo}}
{{See also|Motorways in Kosovo}}

[[File:Prishtina International Airport "Adem Jashari" Limak Kosovo.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Pristina International Airport]] (PRN) handles more than 2.9&nbsp;million passengers per year.]]

Road transportation of passengers and freight is the most common form of transportation in Kosovo. There are two main motorways in Kosovo: the [[Albania–Kosovo Highway|R7]] connecting Kosovo with [[Albania]] and the [[R6 Motorway (Kosovo)|R6]] connecting [[Pristina]] to the Macedonian border at [[Hani i Elezit]]. The construction of the [[R7.1 Motorway (Kosovo)|R7.1 Motorway]] began in 2017.

The [[R7 Motorway (Kosovo)|R7 Motorway]] (part of [[Albania-Kosovo Highway]]) links Kosovo to [[Albania]]'s [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] coast in [[Durrës]]. Once the remaining [[European route E80|European route (E80)]] from [[Pristina]] to [[Merdare]] section project will be completed, the motorway will link Kosovo through the present [[European route E80|European route (E80)]] highway with the [[Pan-European corridor X]] ([[European route E75|E75]]) near [[Niš]] in Serbia. The [[R6 Motorway (Kosovo)|R6 Motorway]], forming part of the [[European route E65|E65]], is the second motorway constructed in the region. It links the capital [[Pristina]] with the border with North Macedonia at [[Hani i Elezit]], which is about {{convert|20|km|abbr=on}} from [[Skopje]]. Construction of the motorway started in 2014 and finished in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mit-ks.net/sq/lajme/arben-xhaferie-gatshme-per-qarkullim |title="Arbën Xhaferi"e gatshme për qarkullim |publisher=[[Ministry of Environment, Spatial Planning and Infrastructure of Kosovo]] |date=29 May 2019 |language=sq-AL |access-date=5 September 2022 |archive-date=5 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905012224/http://www.mit-ks.net/sq/lajme/arben-xhaferie-gatshme-per-qarkullim |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Trainkos]] operates daily passenger trains on two routes: [[Pristina]] – [[Fushë Kosovë railway station|Fushë Kosovë]] – [[Peja|Pejë]], as well as [[Pristina]] – [[Kosovo Polje|Fushë Kosovë]] – [[Ferizaj]] – [[Skopje]], [[North Macedonia]] (the latter in cooperation with [[Makedonski Železnici|Macedonian Railways]]).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Transporti i udhëtarëve|url=http://www.trainkos.com/sherbimet/transporti-i-udhetareve/|access-date=2021-05-28|publisher=[[Trainkos]]|language=sq-AL|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516212413/https://www.trainkos.com/sherbimet/transporti-i-udhetareve/|url-status=live}}</ref> Also, freight trains run throughout the country.

The nation hosts two airports, [[Pristina International Airport]] and [[Gjakova Airport]]. Pristina International Airport is located southwest of [[Pristina]]. It is Kosovo's only international airport and the only port of entry for air travelers to Kosovo. Gjakova Airport was built by the [[Kosovo Force]] (KFOR) following the [[Kosovo War]], next to an existing airfield used for agricultural purposes, and was used mainly for military and humanitarian flights. The local and national government plans to offer [[Gjakova Airport]] for operation under a public-private partnership with the aim of turning it into a civilian and commercial airport.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aktivitetet e Ministrisë së Tregtisë dhe Industrisë: Themelohet Ndërmarrja Publike 'Aeroporti i Gjakovës'|url=http://www.mti-ks.org/sq/Aktivitetet-e-MTI-se/Themelohet-Ndermarrja-Publike-Aeroporti-i-Gjakoves-2882-2882|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227170445/http://www.mti-ks.org/sq/Aktivitetet-e-MTI-se/Themelohet-Ndermarrja-Publike-Aeroporti-i-Gjakoves-2882-2882|archive-date=27 February 2015|publisher=Ministria e Tregtisë dhe Industrisë}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

=== Health ===
{{main|Health care in Kosovo|l1=Health in Kosovo}}

In the past, Kosovo's capabilities to develop a modern [[health care]] system were limited.<ref name="Sectorial Health Strategy">{{cite web |title=Strategjia Sektoriale e Shendetesise |url=http://kryeministri-ks.net/repository/docs/Strategjia_e_Sektorit_te_Shendetesise_2010-2014.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903235317/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fkryeministri-ks.net%2Frepository%2Fdocs%2FStrategjia_e_Sektorit_te_Shendetesise_2010-2014.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=3 September 2015 |publisher=Ministry of Health&nbsp;– Republic of Kosovo |access-date=2 March 2014 }}</ref> Low [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] during 1990 worsened the situation even more. However, the establishment of Faculty of Medicine in the [[Universiteti i Prishtinës|University of Pristina]] marked a significant development in health care. This was also followed by launching different health clinics which enabled better conditions for professional development.<ref name="Sectorial Health Strategy"/>

Nowadays the situation has changed, and the health care system in Kosovo is organised into three sectors: [[Primary health care|primary]], secondary and tertiary health care.<ref name="Sectorial Health Care Strategy">{{cite web |title=Strategjia Sektoriale e Shendetesise |url=http://kryeministri-ks.net/repository/docs/Strategjia_e_Sektorit_te_Shendetesise_2010-2014.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903235317/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fkryeministri-ks.net%2Frepository%2Fdocs%2FStrategjia_e_Sektorit_te_Shendetesise_2010-2014.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=3 September 2015 |publisher=Ministry of Health |access-date=2 March 2014 }}</ref> Primary health care in [[Pristina]] is organised into thirteen family medicine centres<ref name="prishtina-komuna.org">QKMF. (2010–2014). Njesite me Adresa dhe Nr.Telefonit. Available: [https://web.archive.org/web/20140306193241/http://www.prishtina-komuna.org/repository/docs/Qkmf_Prishtin.pdf]. Last accessed 23 February 2014.</ref> and fifteen ambulatory care units.<ref name="prishtina-komuna.org"/> Secondary health care is decentralised in seven regional hospitals. Pristina does not have any regional hospital and instead uses University Clinical Center of Kosovo for health care services. [[University Clinical Center of Kosovo]] provides its health care services in twelve clinics,<ref name="Stafi i QKUK-se">{{cite web|title=Stafi i QKUK-se |url=http://qkuk.org/stafi/ |publisher=QKUK |access-date=23 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306190904/http://qkuk.org/stafi/ |archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> where 642 doctors are employed.<ref name="2012 Health Statistics">{{cite web|title=Statistikat e Shëndetësisë 2012 |url=https://esk.rks-gov.net/shendetsia/doc_view/1066-statistikat-e-shaeumlndetaeumlsisaeuml-2012?tmpl=component&format=raw |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302190734/https://esk.rks-gov.net/shendetsia/doc_view/1066-statistikat-e-shaeumlndetaeumlsisaeuml-2012?tmpl=component&format=raw |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 March 2014 |publisher=Kosovo Agency of Statistics |access-date=1 March 2014}}</ref>  At a lower level, home services are provided for several vulnerable groups which are not able to reach health care premises.<ref name="Home Services">{{cite web|title=Informatë&nbsp;– 13 shkurt 2012|url=http://kk.rks-gov.net/prishtina/News/INFORMATE.aspx|publisher=Municipality of Prishtina&nbsp;– Republic of Kosovo|access-date=2 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706004640/http://kk.rks-gov.net/prishtina/News/INFORMATE.aspx|archive-date=6 July 2015}}</ref> Kosovo health care services are now focused on patient safety, quality control and assisted health.<ref name="Patient Safety and Quality Control">{{cite web|title=Strategjia e permiresimit te cilesise se sherbimeve shendetesore 2012–2016|url=http://msh-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Strategjia-e-permiresimit-te-cilesise-dhe-sigurise-se-SHSH-2012-2016.pdf|publisher=Ministry of Health&nbsp;– Republic of Kosovo|access-date=2 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306192356/http://msh-ks.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Strategjia-e-permiresimit-te-cilesise-dhe-sigurise-se-SHSH-2012-2016.pdf|archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> 
{{Clear}}

=== Education ===
{{see also|Education in Kosovo}}

[[File:National Library of Kosovo Arben Llapashtica.jpg|thumb|The [[National Library of Kosovo]]]]

Education for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is predominantly public and supported by the state, run by the [[Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (Kosovo)|Ministry of Education]]. Education takes place in two main stages: primary and secondary education, and higher education.

The primary and secondary education is subdivided into four stages: preschool education, primary and low secondary education, high secondary education and special education. Preschool education is for children from the ages of one to five. Primary and secondary education is obligatory for everyone. It is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools and also available in languages of recognised minorities in Kosovo, where classes are held in [[Albanian language|Albanian]], Serbian, [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian]]. The first phase (primary education) includes grades one to five, and the second phase (low secondary education) grades six to nine. The third phase (high secondary education) consists of general education but also professional education, which is focused on different fields. It lasts four years. However, pupils are offered possibilities of applying for higher or university studies. According to the [[Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (Kosovo)|Ministry of Education]], children who are not able to get a general education are able to get a special education (fifth phase).<ref>{{cite web|title=Elementary and secondary education|url=https://www.rks-gov.net/en-US/Qytetaret/Edukimi/Pages/ArsimiFillorDheMesem.aspx|website=rks-gov.net|language=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818111807/https://www.rks-gov.net/en-US/Qytetaret/Edukimi/Pages/ArsimiFillorDheMesem.aspx|archive-date=18 August 2016|access-date=14 April 2017}}</ref>
Higher education can be received in universities and other higher-education institutes. These educational institutions offer studies for [[Bachelor's degree|Bachelor]], [[Master's degree|Master]] and [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] degrees. The students may choose full-time or part-time studies.

=== Media ===
{{main|Media of Kosovo}}

Kosovo ranks 56th out of 180 countries in the 2023 [[Press Freedom Index]] report compiled by the [[Reporters Without Borders]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-21 |title=Kosovo {{!}} RSF |url=https://rsf.org/en/country-kosovo |access-date=2023-05-28 |website=rsf.org |language=en |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528131825/https://rsf.org/en/country-kosovo |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Media of Kosovo|Media]] consists of different kinds of communicative media such as radio, television, newspapers, and internet web sites. Most of the media survive from advertising and subscriptions. As according to IREX there are 92 radio stations and 22 television stations.<ref>{{Cite report |title=Media Sustainability Index 2012 |date=2012 |pages=74–85 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506145929/http://www.irex.org/system/files/u105/EE_MSI_2012_Kosovo.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2014 |url-status=dead |chapter-url=http://www.irex.org/system/files/u105/EE_MSI_2012_Kosovo.pdf |chapter=Kosovo}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Kosovo}}

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Kosovar cuisine}}

[[File:Fli e pjekur me saç.jpg|thumb|right|[[Flia|Fli]] is one of the most favored dishes of the traditional [[Albanian cuisine]] in Kosovo.]]

[[Kosovar cuisine]] is distinguished by multifaceted culinary influences derived from [[Balkan cuisine|Balkan]], [[Mediterranean cuisine|Mediterranean]], and [[Ottoman cuisine|Ottoman]] traditions.<ref name="YouGuide">{{cite book |title=The Complete Travel Guide for Kosovo |publisher=YouGuide International BV |pages=73–84 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD8YEQAAQBAJ |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919121313/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Complete_Travel_Guide_for_Kosovo/zD8YEQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |archive-date=19 September 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> This combination reflects Kosovo's diverse historical and cultural contexts while highlighting its [[Kosovo Albanians|Albanian heritage]].<ref name="YouGuide"/><ref name="Bogueva">{{cite book |editor1-last=Bogueva |editor1-first=Diana |editor2-last=Gostin |editor2-first=Alina-Ioana |editor3-last=Kakurinov |editor3-first=Vladimir |title=Nutritional and Health Aspects of Food in the Balkans |date=21 May 2021 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-128-20786-4 |pages=128–136 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ki4MEAAAQBAJ |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919122243/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Nutritional_and_Health_Aspects_of_Food_i/Ki4MEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |archive-date=19 September 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> A paramount aspect of this tradition is the principle of hospitality, as articulated in the [[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]], which guides various aspects of social interactions and practices.<ref name="H,Elsie">{{cite book |last1=Elsie |first1=Robert |author1-link=Robert Elsie |title=A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology and Folk Culture |date=2001 |publisher=C. Hurst |isbn=978-1-850-65570-1 |pages=116–118 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_IXHrXIsYkC |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919123252/https://www.google.com/books/edition/A_Dictionary_of_Albanian_Religion_Mythol/N_IXHrXIsYkC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |archive-date=19 September 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> Particularly, the notion "the house of an Albanian belongs to God and to the guest" underscores the high regard on treating guests with respect and generosity.<ref name="H,Elsie"/> [[Flia|Fli]] stands out for its unique preparation, which involves layering batter and cream in a special pan called a saç, baked slowly over several hours.<ref name="Jones">{{cite book |last=Jones |first=William |title=Discovering Kosovo A Travel Guide |publisher=Mamba Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ay38EAAAQBAJ |access-date=19 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240919120533/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Discovering_Kosovo/Ay38EAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |archive-date=19 September 2024 |chapter=9–10 |url-status=live}}</ref> Pite, a savory pie filled with a mixture of meat, cheese, or spinach, is often enjoyed as a hearty meal throughout Kosovo. Another popular dish is [[Börek|Byrek]], a flaky pastry that can be filled with a variety of ingredients, including meat, spinach, or cheese, and is often prepared in circular pans.<ref name="Jones"/> [[Ćevapi|Qebapa]] are hand-rolled sausages, traditionally made from a blend of minced beef and other meats, are seasoned with a mix of spices such as garlic and black pepper.<ref name="YouGuide"/> They are commonly served alongside freshly baked bread, raw onions and [[ajvar]], a popular savory red pepper, eggplant and garlic spread that complements the dish.<ref name="YouGuide"/> Petulla, or fried dough balls also known as Llokuma, are often drizzled with honey or sprinkled with sugar. Reçel, a type of fruit preserve, is made from various fruits and often used as a spread on bread or served alongside petulla.

[[Baklava|Bakllavë]] is a traditional dessert in Southern Europe, comprising layers of phyllo pastry filled with nuts and drizzled with honey that is often served for festive occasions.<ref name="Jones"/> Another notable dessert is [[Tres leches cake|Trileçe]], a sponge cake soaked in a blend of three types of milk and covered with caramel.<ref name="Jones"/> The coffee culture of Kosovo represents a vibrant and essential aspect of daily life, functioning as a cornerstone for social interactions and communal gatherings.<ref name="Jones"/> In Kosovo, coffee symbolises hospitality and community, inviting both locals and visitors to connect.<ref name="Jones"/> Often accompanied by traditional sweets and pastries, the preparation of coffee typically involves a cezve, a traditional pot for brewing finely ground coffee. This method emphasises the ceremonial nature of coffee preparation. Hosts take pride in serving their guests the finest brew, highlighting the importance of hospitality. The act of sharing coffee fosters meaningful conversations among individuals, with people recounting stories and engaging in discussions about life.<ref name="Jones"/>
{{Clear}}

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Kosovo}}
{{See also|Membership of Kosovo in international sports federations}}

[[File:FC Prishtina, football stadium.jpg|thumb|[[Pristina]] was announced as the host city of the [[2030 Mediterranean Games]].]]

Since its declaration of independence in 2008, Kosovo has made substantial advancements in international sports. The nation's inaugural participation in the [[Olympic Games]] occurred at the [[2016 Summer Olympics|2016 games]], where it achieved a milestone by securing its first medals, totaling [[Kosovo at the Olympics|five medals]] to date.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) |title=A nation for just 14 years: already three Olympic golds |url=https://olympics.com/ioc/news/a-nation-for-just-14-years-already-three-olympic-golds |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816084627/https://olympics.com/ioc/news/a-nation-for-just-14-years-already-three-olympic-golds |archive-date=16 August 2024 |date=4 May 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Kosovo's involvement in the [[European Games]] began in [[2015 European Games|2015]], during which the nation amassed [[Kosovo at the European Games|four medals]]. Additionally, Kosovo commenced participation in the [[Mediterranean Games]] in [[2018 Mediterranean Games|2018]], achieving success with a total of [[Kosovo at the Mediterranean Games|ten medals]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[International Committee of Mediterranean Games]] (CIJM) |title=2018 Tarragona, Spain–70 Years Mediterranean Games |url=https://www.70yearsmg.com/games/tarragona-2018/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302123402/https://www.70yearsmg.com/games/tarragona-2018/ |archive-date=2 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=International Committee of Mediterranean Games (CIJM) |title=Mediterranean Games: Medal Table 1951–2022 |url=https://cijm.org.gr/medal-tables/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817001827/https://cijm.org.gr/medal-tables/ |archive-date=17 August 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> Forthcoming, Kosovo is scheduled to host the [[2030 Mediterranean Games|2030 games]], marking a significant opportunity for the nation in the realm of international sports.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[European Olympic Committees]] (EOC) |title=Future hosts of Mediterranean Games and Mediterranean Beach Games confirmed |url=https://www.eurolympic.org/future-hosts-of-mediterranean-games-and-mediterranean-beach-games-confirmed/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240920111622/https://www.eurolympic.org/future-hosts-of-mediterranean-games-and-mediterranean-beach-games-confirmed/ |archive-date=20 September 2024 |date=12 September 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Prime Minister of Kosovo|Prime Minister Office (Kosovo)]] |title=The speech of Prime Minister Kurti at the General Assembly of the International Committee of the Mediterranean Games, where our country's candidacy for the organization of the 2030 Mediterranean Games is being considered |url=https://kryeministri.rks-gov.net/en/blog/the-speech-of-prime-minister-kurti-at-the-general-assembly-of-the-international-committee-of-the-mediterranean-games-where-our-countrys-candidacy-for-the-organization-of-the-2030-mediterranean-game/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240920111711/https://kryeministri.rks-gov.net/en/blog/the-speech-of-prime-minister-kurti-at-the-general-assembly-of-the-international-committee-of-the-mediterranean-games-where-our-countrys-candidacy-for-the-organization-of-the-2030-mediterranean-game/ |archive-date=20 September 2024 |date=8 September 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Notable athletes such as [[Laura Fazliu]], [[Akil Gjakova]], [[Nora Gjakova]], [[Majlinda Kelmendi]], [[Loriana Kuka]], and [[Distria Krasniqi]] have played vital roles in Kosovo's sporting achievements, with Majlinda Kelmendi being particularly recognised for winning the nation's first Olympic gold medal.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=International Olympic Committee (IOC) |title=Only Olympic medal: Majlinda Kelmendi gives Kosovo a reason to dream |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/only-olympic-medal-majlinda-kelmendi-gives-kosovo-a-reason-to-dream |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240920112213/https://olympics.com/en/news/only-olympic-medal-majlinda-kelmendi-gives-kosovo-a-reason-to-dream |archive-date=20 September 2024 |date=5 May 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Judo has become a cornerstone of Kosovo's success in international competitions, accounting for the majority of the nation's medals across various events.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=European Correspondent |title=How a small gym made Kosovo a judo powerhouse |url=https://www.europeancorrespondent.com/r/how-a-small-gym-made-kosovo-a-judo-powerhouse |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240920112228/https://www.europeancorrespondent.com/r/how-a-small-gym-made-kosovo-a-judo-powerhouse |archive-date=20 September 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Poggi |first=Alessandro |publisher=International Olympic Committee (IOC) |title=Judo legend Majlinda Kelmendi exclusive: Rise of female coaches is very inspiring |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/judo-champion-majlinda-kelmendi-coaching-interview |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240816064753/https://olympics.com/en/news/judo-champion-majlinda-kelmendi-coaching-interview |archive-date=16 August 2024 |date=30 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Prior to Kosovo's independence, notable athletes such as [[Aziz Salihu]], [[Vladimir Durković]], [[Fahrudin Jusufi]], and [[Milutin Šoškić]] represented Yugoslavia, thereby contributing to the diverse athletic heritage of Kosovo.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ott |first=Raoul |title=Hegemoniebildung und Elitentransformation im Kosovo von der spätosmanischen Herrschaft bis zur Republik |date=2023 |publisher=Logos Verlag Berlin |isbn=978-3-832-55720-1 |page=363 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZxXdEAAAQBAJ |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240920112256/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Hegemoniebildung_und_Elitentransformatio/ZxXdEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |archive-date=20 September 2024 |chapter=7.1.2 Die Albaner Jugoslawiens zwischen Integration und Exklusion}}</ref>

Kosovo achieved [[Football Federation of Kosovo|full membership status]] in both the [[UEFA|Union of European Football Associations]] (UEFA) and [[FIFA|Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] (FIFA) in 2016, facilitating the nation's participation in international football competitions.<ref name="UEFA Member">{{cite web |publisher=[[UEFA|Union of European Football Associations]] (UEFA) |title=Football Federation of Kosovo joins UEFA |url=https://www.uefa.com/news-media/news/022d-0f8e2b5bf9d1-4268d2e86044-1000--football-federation-of-kosovo-joins-uefa/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240920112516/https://www.uefa.com/news-media/news/022d-0f8e2b5bf9d1-4268d2e86044-1000--football-federation-of-kosovo-joins-uefa/ |archive-date=20 September 2024 |date=3 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="FIFA Member">{{cite web |publisher=[[FIFA|Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] (FIFA) |title=66th Fifa Congress, Mexico City 2016 |url=https://inside.fifa.com/about-fifa/congress/news/66th-fifa-congress-zurich-2016-2878197 |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525151047/https://inside.fifa.com/about-fifa/congress/news/66th-fifa-congress-zurich-2016-2878197 |archive-date=25 May 2024 |date=13 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> As a result, the [[Kosovo national football team|national football team]] of Kosovo became eligible to compete in qualification rounds for major tournaments such as the [[UEFA Nations League]], the [[UEFA European Championship|European Championship]] and the [[FIFA World Cup]].<ref name="UEFA Member"/><ref name="FIFA Member"/> The team's paramount achievement occurred during the [[2018–19 UEFA Nations League|2018–19 edition]] of the UEFA Nations League, wherein they concluded the tournament atop their [[2018–19 UEFA Nations League D|League D]] group, maintaining an unbeaten record of four victories and two draws, thus securing promotion to a higher competitive tier.<ref name="Wood">{{cite web |last=Wood |first=Mike Meehall |magazine=[[Forbes]] |title=Are Kosovo The 2018 UEFA Nations League's Biggest Success Story? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/mikemeehallwood/2018/11/21/are-kosovo-the-2018-uefa-nations-leagues-biggest-success-story/ |access-date=20 September 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240920115101/https://www.forbes.com/sites/mikemeehallwood/2018/11/21/are-kosovo-the-2018-uefa-nations-leagues-biggest-success-story/ |archive-date=20 September 2024 |date=21 November 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> Several Kosovo-Albanian players have opted to represent various European nations, highlighting figures examples, including [[Lorik Cana]] for [[Albania national football team|Albania]] and [[Adnan Januzaj]] for [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]]. Furthermore, key contributions have come from players such as [[Valon Behrami]], [[Xherdan Shaqiri]], and [[Granit Xhaka]], all of whom have made pivotal contributions to the [[Switzerland national football team|Swiss team]].<ref name="Wood"/>
{{Clear}}

=== Arts ===
{{Main|Architecture of Kosovo|Monuments of Kosovo|l1 = Architecture}}
{{See also|Destruction of Albanian heritage in Kosovo|Destruction of Serbian heritage in Kosovo|l1=Destruction of Albanian|l2=Serbian heritage in Kosovo}}

[[File:Muzeu i Kosovës.JPG|thumb|The [[Kosovo Museum|National Museum of Kosovo]]]]
[[File:Prishtina and the great Hamam.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Great Hamam of Pristina]] was built in the 15th century and was part of the [[Imperial Mosque (Pristina)|Imperial Mosque]] in [[Pristina]].]]

The architecture of Kosovo dates back to the [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and [[Middle Age]]s. It has been influenced by the presence of different civilisations and religions as evidenced by the structures which have survived to this day.

Kosovo is home to many [[Monastery|monasteries]] and churches from the 13th and 14th centuries that represent the [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Orthodox]] legacy. Architectural heritage from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Period]] includes mosques and [[Turkish bath|hamams]] from the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. Other historical architectural structures of interest include [[Monuments of Kosovo|kullas]] from the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as a number of bridges, urban centers and fortresses. While some [[Vernacular architecture|vernacular buildings]] are not considered important in their own right, taken together they are of considerable interest. During the [[Kosovo War|1999 conflict in Kosovo]], many buildings that represent this heritage were destroyed or damaged.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|title=Prioritized Intervention List|journal=Regional Programme for Cultural and Natural Heritage in South-east Europe|date=23 January 2009|page=8|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/cooperation/see/countries/kosovo_en.asp|access-date=2 March 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302202142/http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/cooperation/see/countries/kosovo_en.asp|archive-date=2 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="unesco.org">{{cite journal|title=Cultural Heritage in South-East: Kosovo|journal=United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|page=5|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/venice/culture/safeguarding-cultural-heritage/capacity-building/cultural-heritage-kosovo/|access-date=2 March 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322132708/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/venice/culture/safeguarding-cultural-heritage/capacity-building/cultural-heritage-kosovo/|archive-date=22 March 2014}}</ref> In the Dukagjini region, at least 500 kullas were attacked, and most of them destroyed or otherwise damaged.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=7 Years of Kosovo Howard Smith of Geelong |url=https://hsog.tk/2015/03/7-years-of-kosovo/ |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150413201519/http://hsog.tk/2015/03/7-years-of-kosovo/ |archive-date=13 April 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2004, [[UNESCO]] recognised the [[Visoki Dečani|Visoki Dečani monastery]] as [[World Heritage Site]] for its outstanding universal value. Two years later, the site of patrimony was extended as a serial nomination, to include three other religious monuments: [[Patriarchate of Peć (monastery)|Patriarchate of Peja]], [[Our Lady of Ljeviš]] and [[Gračanica monastery]] under the name of [[Medieval Monuments in Kosovo]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Medieval Monuments in Kosovo|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|date=2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513120313/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/724/|archive-date=13 May 2015}}</ref> It consists of four [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Orthodox]] churches and [[Serbian monasteries|monasteries]], which represent the fusion of the eastern Orthodox [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] and the western [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] ecclesiastical architecture to form the Palaiologan Renaissance style.

These monuments have come under attack, especially during the [[2004 unrest in Kosovo|2004 ethnic violence]]. In 2006, the property was inscribed on the [[List of World Heritage in Danger]] due to difficulties in its management and conservation stemming from the region's political instability.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/268 World Heritage Committee puts Medieval Monuments in Kosovo on Danger List and extends site in Andorra, ending this year's inscriptions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002052606/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/268 |date=2 October 2015}}, ''[[UNESCO|UNESCO World Heritage Centre]]'', 13 July 2006. Accessed 31 January 2017.</ref>

Kosovar art was unknown to the international public for a very long time, because of the regime, many artists were unable to display their art in art galleries, and so were always on the lookout for alternatives, and even resorted to taking matters into their own hands. Until 1990, artists from Kosovo presented their art in many prestigious worldwide renowned centers. They were affirmed and evaluated highly because of their unique approach to the arts considering the circumstances in which they were created, making them distinguished and original.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dmu.ac.uk/about-dmu/news/2015/august/photography-academic-invited-by-president-to-attend-ceremony-for-popstar-rita-ora.aspx|title=Photography academic invited by President to attend ceremony for popstar Rita Ora|website=www.dmu.ac.uk|language=en-gb|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180509221300/http://www.dmu.ac.uk/about-dmu/news/2015/august/photography-academic-invited-by-president-to-attend-ceremony-for-popstar-rita-ora.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Congress2010">{{cite book|author=Library of Congress|title=Library of Congress Subject Headings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij47KwlCAykC&pg=PA4303|year=2010|publisher=Library of Congress|pages=4303–|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-date=4 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804023456/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij47KwlCAykC&pg=PA4303|url-status=live}}</ref>

In February 1979, the [[National Gallery of Kosovo|Kosova National Art Gallery]] was founded. It became the highest institution of visual arts in Kosovo. It was named after one of the most prominent artists of Kosovo [[Muslim Mulliqi]]. [[Engjëll Berisha]], [[Masar Caka]], [[Tahir Emra]], [[Abdullah Gërguri]], [[Hysni Krasniqi]], [[Nimon Lokaj]], Aziz Nimani, [[Ramadan Ramadani]], [[Esat Valla]] and Lendita Zeqiraj are some of few [[List of Albanian painters|Albanian painters]] born in Kosovo.

=== Music ===
{{main|Music of Kosovo}}

Although the music in Kosovo is diverse, authentic [[Music of Albania|Albanian]] and [[Serbian music]] still exist. [[Albanian music]] is characterised by the use of the [[Çifteli]]. [[Classical music in Kosovo|Classical music]] is well known in Kosovo and has been taught at several [[List of pre-college music schools|music schools]] and universities. In 2014, Kosovo submitted their first film for the [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]], with ''[[Three Windows and a Hanging]]'' directed by [[Isa Qosja]].<ref name="ThreeWindows">{{cite web |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscars-kosovo-selects-three-windows-734975 |title=Oscars: Kosovo Selects 'Three Windows and a Hanging' for Foreign-Language Category |access-date=23 September 2014 |website=Hollywood Reporter |date=23 September 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140926013052/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/oscars-kosovo-selects-three-windows-734975 |archive-date=26 September 2014}}</ref>[[File:Runik Ocarina.jpg|thumb|202x202px|The Neolithic [[Runik ocarina]] is the oldest musical instrument found in Kosovo to date and one of the oldest in Europe.<ref name=":4" />|left]]

A baked-clay [[ocarina]] was found in the village of [[Runik]] which is considered to be the oldest musical instrument found in Kosovo and one of the oldest ocarinas ever found in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cacciafoco |first=Francesco Perono |date=2019-12-01 |title=A Prehistoric 'Little Goose': A New Etymology for the Word 'Ocarina' |url=https://www.academia.edu/41376720 |journal=Annals of the University of Craiova: Series Philology, Linguistics}}</ref> [[Runik ocarina]] is thought to be at least 8,000 years old.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Kayode |date=2022-09-24 |title=History Of The Ocarina |url=https://phamoxmusic.com/history-of-the-ocarina/ |access-date=2023-12-10 |website=Phamox Music |language=en-US |archive-date=10 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210104329/https://phamoxmusic.com/history-of-the-ocarina/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the past, epic poetry in Kosovo and [[Northern Albania]] was sung on a lahuta and then a more tuneful çiftelia was used which has two strings-one for the melody and one for drone. Kosovar music is influenced by Turkish music due to the almost 500-year span of Ottoman rule in Kosovo though Kosovar folklore has preserved its originality and exemplary.<ref name=Bradt>{{cite book|last1=Warrander |first1=Gail |last2=Knaus |first2=Verena |title=Kosovo|year=2011|publisher=Bradt Guides|isbn=9781841623313|page=41|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSaH1bKAb8QC&q=serbian%20music%20kosovo&pg=PA41|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817203252/https://books.google.rs/books?id=uSaH1bKAb8QC&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q=serbian%20music%20kosovo|archive-date=17 August 2017}}</ref> Archaeological research tells how old this tradition is and how it was developed in parallel with other traditional music in the Balkans. Roots dating to the 5th century BC have been found in paintings on stones of singers with instruments. (There is a famous portrait of "Pani" holding an instrument similar to a flute).<ref name="Kruta">{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Beniamin|title=Vendi i polifonise shqiptare ne polifonike ballkanike|year=1990|publisher=Kultura Popullore|pages=13–14}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| image1            = Oliver Mark - Rita Ora, Berlin 2018.jpg
| caption1          = 
| image2            = Glasto24 28 300624 (259 of 545) (53838014719) (cropped).jpg
| caption2          = 
| total_width       = 300
| footer            = [[Rita Ora]] (left) and [[Dua Lipa]] (right) are both singers that come from Kosovo
}}

The contemporary music artists [[Rita Ora]], [[Dua Lipa]] and [[Era Istrefi]], are all of [[Albanians|Albanian origin]] and have achieved international recognition for their music.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rita Ora|website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|date=24 February 2012 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/earshot/rita-ora-single-party-and-bullshit-jay-z-roc-nation-294871|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501101740/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/earshot/rita-ora-single-party-and-bullshit-jay-z-roc-nation-294871|archive-date=1 May 2012}}</ref> One widely recognised musician from [[Prizren]] is guitarist [[Petrit Çeku]], winner of several international prizes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Petrit Ceku |url=https://www.naxos.com/Bio/Person/Petrit_Ceku/70948 |website=naxos.com |access-date=14 February 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214225145/https://www.naxos.com/Bio/Person/Petrit_Ceku/70948 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Serbian music from Kosovo presents a mixture of traditional music, which is part of the wider Balkan tradition, with its own distinctive sound, and various Western and Turkish influences.<ref name=Bradt/> Serb songs from Kosovo were an inspiration for 12th song wreath by composer [[Stevan Mokranjac]]. Most of Serbian music from Kosovo was dominated by church music, with its own share of sung epic poetry.<ref name=Bradt/> Serbian national instrument [[Gusle]] is also used in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite book|last=Biddle|first=Ian|title=Music National Identity and the Politics of Location: Between the Global and the Local|year=2013|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=9781409493778|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C_oM5LheoEAC|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817203150/https://books.google.rs/books?id=C_oM5LheoEAC|archive-date=17 August 2017}}</ref>

[[Viktorija (singer)|Viktorija]] is the only artist from [[Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo|Kosovo]] who represented [[Yugoslavia in the Eurovision Song Contest]] as part of [[Aska (group)|Aska]] in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982|1982]]. Singer [[Rona Nishliu]] finished 5th in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2012|2012]] Eurovision Song Contest, while [[Lindita (singer)|Lindita]] represented Albania in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2017|2017]]. Several Serbian singers from Kosovo have also participated in the Serbian national selection for the Eurovision Song Contest. [[Nevena Božović]] represented [[Serbia in the Junior Eurovision Song Contest]] and twice in the Eurovision Song Contest, firstly as a member of [[Moje 3]] in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2013|2013]] and as a solo act in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2019|2019]].

=== Cinema ===
{{main|Cinema of Kosovo}}

[[File:Odissea Bekim Fehmiu.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Bekim Fehmiu]] was the first Eastern European actor to star in [[Hollywood (film industry)|Hollywood]] during the Cold War.]]

<!-- Copied Content from "Cinema of Kosovo" -->
The film industry of Kosovo dates from the 1970s. In 1969, the parliament of Kosovo established [[Kosovafilm]], a state institution for the production, distribution and showing of films. Its initial director was the actor Abdurrahman Shala, followed by writer and noted poet [[Azem Shkreli]], under whose direction the most successful films were produced. Subsequent directors of Kosovafilm were Xhevar Qorraj, Ekrem Kryeziu and Gani Mehmetaj. After producing seventeen feature films, numerous short films and documentaries, the institution was taken over by the Serbian authorities in 1990 and dissolved. Kosovafilm was reestablished after [[FR Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] withdrawal from the region in June 1999 and has since been endeavoring to revive the film industry in Kosovo.

[[File:Kino-Kalaja.jpg|left|thumb|[[Dokufest]] in [[Prizren]].]]

The International [[Dokufest|Documentary and Short Film Festival]] is the largest film event in Kosovo. The Festival is organised in August in [[Prizren]], which attracts numerous international and regional artists. In this annually organised festival, films are screened twice a day in three open-air cinemas as well as in two regular cinemas. Except for its films, the festival is also well known for lively nights after the screening. Various events happen within the scope of the festival: workshops, DokuPhoto exhibitions, festival camping, concerts, which altogether turn the city into a charming place to be. In 2010, Dokufest was voted as one of the 25 best international documentary festivals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dokufest.com/2012/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820055759/http://www.dokufest.com/2012/?cid=2,34|url-status=dead|title=Home – DOKUFEST 2013|archive-date=20 August 2016|website=dokufest.com}}</ref>

International actors of [[Albanians in kosovo|Albanian origin]] from Kosovo include [[Arta Dobroshi]], [[James Biberi]], [[Faruk Begolli]] and [[Bekim Fehmiu]]. The [[Prishtina International Film Festival]] is the largest film festival, held annually in Pristina, in Kosovo that screens prominent international cinema productions in the Balkan region and beyond, and draws attention to the Kosovar film industry.

The movie ''[[Shok (film)|Shok]]'' was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film]] at the [[88th Academy Awards]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Oscars 2016 Nominations: Complete List of Nominees|url=http://www.eonline.com/news/730249/oscars-2016-nominations-complete-list-of-nominees|website=[[E! Online]]|date=14 January 2016|access-date=14 January 2016|first=Zach|last=Johnson|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115113854/http://www.eonline.com/news/730249/oscars-2016-nominations-complete-list-of-nominees|archive-date=15 January 2016}}</ref> The movie was written and directed by Oscar nominated director [[Jamie Donoughue]], based on true events during the [[Kosovo war]]. ''Shok'''s distributor is Ouat Media, and the social media campaign is led by [[Team Albanians]].

== See also ==
* [[List of Kosovo Albanians]]
* [[Outline of Kosovo]]
* [[Partition of Albania]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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{{Wikiatlas|Kosovo}}
*[https://president-ksgov.net/ President of Kosovo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701112500/https://president-ksgov.net/ |date=1 July 2023 }}{{spaced ndash}}{{in lang|sq}}
*[https://kryeministri.rks-gov.net/ Prime Minister of Kosovo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102131555/https://kryeministri.rks-gov.net/ |date=2 January 2023 }}{{spaced ndash}}{{in lang|sq}}
*[https://kuvendikosoves.org/ Parliament of Kosovo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605084856/https://kuvendikosoves.org/ |date=5 June 2023 }}{{spaced ndash}}{{in lang|sq}}
*[https://www.eulex-kosovo.eu/ EULEX] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230705062812/https://www.eulex-kosovo.eu/ |date=5 July 2023 }}{{spaced ndash}}{{in lang|en}}
*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/Kosovo/ Kosovo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204144331/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kosovo/ |date=4 February 2021 }} at ''[[The World Factbook]]'' by [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA)

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