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Kudzu is an invasive plant species in the United States. Its introduction has produced devastating environmental consequences.^[1] This has earned it the nickname "the vine that ate the South". It has been spreading rapidly in the Southern United States, "easily outpacing the use of herbicide spraying and mowing, as well increasing the costs of these controls by $6 million annually".^[2] Estimates of the vine's spread vary, from the United States Forest Service's 2015 estimate of 2,500 acres (1,000 ha; 10 km²) per year^[3] to the Department of Agriculture's estimate of as much as 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 610 km²) annually.^[4]

History and Biology

Description

Kudzu is a perennial vine native to Asia, primarily subtropical and temperate regions of China, Japan, and Korea,^[5]^[6] with trifoliate leaves composed of three leaflets.^[7]^[8] Five species in the genus Pueraria (P. montana, P. lobata, P. edulis, P. phaseoloides and P. thomsoni) are closely related and kudzu populations in the United States seem to have ancestry from more than one of the species.^[9]^[10] Each leaflet is large and ovate with two to three lobes each and hair on the underside.^[7]^[11] The leaves have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, which can supply up to 95% of leaf nitrogen to the plant in poor soils.^[7] Along the vines are nodes, points at which stems or tendrils can propagate to increase support and attach to structures.^[7] As a twining vine, kudzu uses stems or tendrils that can extend from any node on the vine to attach to and climb most surfaces.^[5]^[7]^[12] In addition, the nodes of the kudzu vine have the ability to root when exposed to soil, further anchoring the vine to the ground.^[5]^[7] The roots are tuberous and are high in starch and water content, and the twining of the plant allows for less carbon concentration in the construction of woody stems and greater concentration in roots, which aids root growth.^[7] The roots can account for up to 40% of total plant biomass.^[5]

Kudzu's primary method of reproduction is asexual vegetative spread (cloning) which is aided by the ability to root wherever a stem is exposed to soil.^[7] For sexual reproduction, kudzu is entirely dependent on pollinators.^[7]

Although kudzu prefers forest regrowth and edge habitats with high sun exposure, the plant can survive in full sun or partial shade.^[5]^[7] These attributes of kudzu made it attractive as an ornamental plant for shading porches in the southeastern United States, but they facilitated the growth of kudzu as it became a "structural parasite" of the South,^[7] enveloping entire structures when untreated^[11] and often referred to as "the vine that ate the South".^[13]

The word "kudzu" comes from the Japanese word for the plant, 葛, or kuzu.

Origin in Asia

Kudzu is believed to have originated in Japan, where the ecosystem (primarily the tendency of kudzu to experience above-ground die back over winter) kept the vine from becoming a nuisance,^[14] and it is thought to have been introduced to China^[11] and likely Korea.

In Japan, kudzu thrives in mountainous regions, ranging from the 44th parallel north (the island of Hokkaido) to the 30th parallel north (the island of Kuchinoshima) and many of the lowlands and the islands.^[11] In Korea, kudzu grows in areas where the temperature can drop to −22 °F (−30 °C).^[11]

History of US introduction

The kudzu plant was introduced to the United States from Japan in 1876 at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.^[7]^[8]^[14] Kudzu was introduced to the Southeast in 1883 at the New Orleans Exposition. The vine was widely marketed in the Southeast as an ornamental plant to be used to shade porches,^[7]^[15] and in the first half of the 20th century, kudzu was distributed as a high-protein content cattle fodder and as a cover plant to prevent soil erosion. It was cultivated by Civilian Conservation Corps workers as a solution for the erosion during the Dust Bowl.^[16] The Soil Erosion Service recommended the use of kudzu to help control erosion of slopes which led to the government-aided distribution of 85 million seedlings and government-funded plantings of kudzu which paid $19.75 per hectare ($7.99/acre).^[7] By 1946, it was estimated that 1,200,000 hectares (3,000,000 acres) of kudzu had been planted.^[7] When boll weevil infestations and the failure of cotton crops caused farmers to abandon their farms, kudzu plantings were left unattended.^[7] The climate and environment of the Southeastern United States allowed the kudzu to grow virtually unchecked. In 1953 the United States Department of Agriculture removed kudzu from a list of suggested cover plants and listed it as a weed in 1970. By 1997, the vine was placed on the "Federal Noxious Weed List".^[5]^[7] Today, kudzu is estimated to cover 3,000,000 hectares (7,400,000 acres) of land in the southeastern United States, mostly in Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina and Mississippi.^[7]^[11] It has been recorded in Nova Scotia, Canada, in Columbus, Ohio, and in all five boroughs of New York City.^[11]

Uses and cultivation

In the United States, kudzu has been used as livestock feed, in fertilizer, and in erosion control, and the vines have been used for folk art.^[7]^[14] In Korea, kudzu root is harvested for its starch, which is used in various foods including naengmyon, as well as a health food and herbal medicine. In China, kudzu root is used in herbal remedies, teas, and the treatment of alcohol-related problems.^[14] The efficacy of the treatment of alcohol-related problems is currently under question, but experiments show promising results.^[11]^[14] In Japan, the kudzu root starch (or kuzu root starch) extracted from kudzu roots is used in cooking and natural medicines, and it is used to make hay that sick animals will eat.^[11] The starch is used in Japanese cuisine, and is widely consumed as such in that country.^[11] Kudzu is also used as a food crop in Java, Sumatra, and Malaya, and can be found in Puerto Rico and South America.^[11]

Other uses may include: paper products, food products, insect repellents (the smoke from burning leaves), honey, and methane production.^[11]

Kudzu also has potential as a source for biofuel.^[17]

Ecology in and effect on new communities

Infestation of Kudzu in the United States.

New communities

Kudzu was intentionally introduced to North America by the Soil Erosion Service and Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s for the purpose of controlling soil erosion in the American Southeast.^[7] When kudzu was first introduced in the southeast, it was initially used as an ornamental vine to shade homes. By the early 20th century, southerners began to use kudzu for purposes other than ornamentation and so kudzu began to come closer in contact with the land which, in turn, encouraged its spread throughout the southeast.^[1] In the 135 years since its introduction, kudzu has spread over three million hectares (ha) of the southern United States, and continues to 'consume' the south at an estimated rate of 50,000 hectares (120,000 acres) per year, destroying power lines, buildings, and native vegetation in its path.^[18] This claim, however, was disputed in 2015 with the United States Forest Service estimating an increase of 2,500 acres (1,000 ha; 10 km²) per year.^[19] In the United States, kudzu is extensively reported in Alabama, Arkansas, Washington, D.C., Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Mississippi, North Carolina, North Dakota, New Jersey, Oregon, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Of these states, three in the southeast have the heaviest infestations: Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.^[1]

Ecological relationships

Kudzu kills or damages other plants by smothering them under a blanket of leaves, encompassing tree trunks, breaking branches, or even uprooting entire trees. Kudzu's ability to grow quickly, survive in areas of low nitrogen availability, and acquire resources quickly allows it to out-compete native species. Of the plants that can successfully compete with kudzu, many are other invasive species such as the Chinese privet and the Japanese honeysuckle.^[1] In the southeast, the spread of kudzu is especially troublesome because of the high level of biodiversity in this region that is not found in other regions of the United States. Kudzu and other invasive weeds pose a significant threat to the biodiversity in the southeast. They reduce the environment to impoverished "vine barrens".^[1] The fast growth and high competitive ability is achieved through several key features of kudzu that are detailed below.

Kudzu is a very stress-tolerant plant. Kudzu is drought tolerant and only the above ground portions of the plant are damaged by frost. Kudzu also forms symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonium which can be used by surrounding plants. Now the dominant nitrogen-fixing plant in the eastern United States, kudzu fixes an estimated 235 kilograms per hectare (209+11⁄16 lb/acre) of nitrogen per year, which is an order of magnitude higher than the rates of native species.^[6] This ability allows it to flourish in nitrogen-poor sites where other plants are unable to grow. In the absence of other plants, nitrogen then builds up in the soil, allowing the maintenance of large leaf areas and high photosynthetic rates.^[7]

While little research has been conducted on the impacts of plant invasion on atmospheric conditions, a study conducted at Stony Brook University in New York shows that kudzu has increased the concentration of atmospheric NOx in the eastern United States, which causes a 2 ppb increase in tropospheric ozone during high temperature events in addition to soil acidification, aluminum mobilization, and leaching of nitrate (NO₃⁻) into aquatic ecosystems.^[6]

Once established in a habitat, kudzu is able to grow very quickly. The vine has a growth rate of 0.3 m (1 foot) every day. The maximum length the vine can reach is 30 m (98 feet).^[20] Kudzu is also able to allocate large portions of carbon to root growth, allowing it to acquire sufficient nutrients for rapid growth and to spread clonally. Primary kudzu roots can weigh over 180 kilograms (400 lb), grow to 18 centimetres (7 in) in diameter, and penetrate soil at a rate of 3 centimetres (1+1⁄8 in) in depth per day. Kudzu can also root wherever stems make contact with soil, allowing vines to grow in all directions. Once rooted, most stems lose connection with each other within one year, allowing each stem to become a physiologically independent individual, and requiring that all stems be treated or removed in order to eliminate a population.^[7]

In addition to its abilities to obtain nutrients and spread quickly, kudzu leaves have paraheliotropic movements, meaning that they move in response to the movement of the sun in order to maximize photosynthetic productivity.^[7] Kudzu is also a "structural parasite", meaning that, rather than supporting itself, it grows on top of other plants and buildings to reach light. Its ability to reproduce and spread quickly allows it to quickly cover shrubs, trees, and forests, where it blocks the sun's rays from the plants below it, decreasing or completely eliminating their photosynthetic productivity.^[7]

Economic and cultural impact

The economic impact of kudzu in the United States is estimated at $100 million to $500 million lost per year in forest productivity.^[7] In addition, it takes about $5,000 per hectare ($2,000/acre) per year to control kudzu.^[7] Power companies must spend about $1.5 million per year to repair damage to power lines. Even so, occasional downed lines continue throughout the south.^[7]^[1]

Kudzu management is of great concern in the management of national parks in the southeast such as Vicksburg National Military Park, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, and Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In Vicksburg, kudzu has invaded 190 acres (77 ha) of the 2,000 total acres (810 ha) of the park and threatens to diminish the historical value of the park.^[1]

Control and removal methods

There are several methods for controlling kudzu growth that are used in the Southeastern United States. These include mechanical, chemical, and biological methods. Control of the vine is difficult because kudzu propagates through runners, rhizomes, nodes on vines, and seeds. Leftover root fragments from lawnmowers can also take root and become established. ^[20]

Mechanical

Most mechanical means of kudzu removal practiced in the southeastern United States involve mowing the vine or cutting it back. These methods, though more effective than herbicides, are more time-consuming.^[13] Vines must be mowed down just above ground level every month or two during the growing season in order to prevent them from growing back. When using this method of kudzu control, all of the plant material must be removed and/or destroyed (burned or fed to cattle) to prevent the vines from taking root and re-growing.^[13] Another method of mechanical removal is to remove the crown of the plant. This part must also be destroyed to prevent re-implantation.^[8]

Chemical

A different and less time-consuming option for the control of kudzu is treatment with herbicides. Some common herbicides used are picloram and triclopyr; the most effective are picloram and tebuthiuron.^[5] However, chemical treatments are expensive, and killing off the plant completely requires large amounts of herbicides (40–80 US gallons per acre (370–750 L/ha)).^[8] Herbicides are found to be most effective when they are used during the typical growing season, June–October, and when used for successive years. One case study saw a significant decrease in the growth of kudzu after just two years, whereas another study required the use of the herbicide for up to ten years.^[7]^[21]

Another form of chemical removal other than herbicides is soil solarization. Soil solarization is a thermal (heat) method that utilizes solar-enhanced heating of the soil to kill the root system of the plant, thereby avoiding the use of pesticides and other more dangerous (fire-based) means to control the plant.^[22] Soil solarization affects the micronutrients and macronutrients in the soil. The most prominent effect of this method of control is the increase in potassium. The higher level of potassium in all soils undergoing solarization demonstrates the successful release of K from decomposing kudzu plant tissues. Such a rise in potassium levels by solarization is important for soils in the Southeastern United States that tend to be highly weathered and generally have low potassium contents.^[22]

Biological

As chemical treatments are often ineffective for long term control and mechanical removal is likewise difficult and costly for long-term control, kudzu makes a good candidate for biological pest control.^[15] There are several biological means that are already in place and more that may be implemented to control the growth of kudzu. Bacterial blights, insect herbivory, and insect seed predation occur in high levels in field populations of kudzu.^[7] Seed predation is quite prevalent, with up to 81% of seeds incurring damage in populations studied in North Carolina. A different survey found twenty-five different species of insect feeding on the kudzu.^[7] From this survey, several leaf-feeding beetles and sawflies that have no other known hosts were identified.^[7] A separate study also found two weevils that attacked the stems of kudzu and eight beetles that complete larval development in the kudzu roots.^[7] When evaluations of potential control agents are made, the range of the control agents must be taken into account. Organisms that feed on kudzu will often feed on similar non-target species that are important in agriculture, such as soybeans and hog-peanuts. Potential control agents have to be rejected if they are shown in laboratory and field tests to feed on these non-target plants.^[15]

Of the diseases that have been identified as potential biological control agents, the fungal pathogen Myrothecium verrucaria has been shown to be very promising. Disease development is very high at around 30–40 °C (86–104 °F), which matches field conditions. In addition, the fungus does not spread outside of areas where it is applied. However, one major drawback of this biological control agent is that it is highly toxic to mammals, so extreme care would have to be taken in handling this organism.^[7] Other pathogens have been tested as potential biological control agents, but have proven to be ineffective.^[7]

Animals

Currently, grazing by goats and pigs is the best method for control of the vine. ^[20] Another way to control kudzu is goats and sheep. A small herd can reduce 1 acre (0.40 ha) an acre (0.4 ha) of kudzu every day.^{[citation needed]}

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Blaustein, R.J. (2001). "Kudzu's invasion into Southern United States life and culture". In McNeely, J. A. (ed.). The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimensions of Invasive Alien Species (PDF). IUCN. pp. 55–62. ISBN 2-8317-0602-5. Retrieved August 20, 2007.
^ "Controlling Kudzu With Naturally Occurring Fungus". Science Daily. July 20, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
^ Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19
^ "Fungus Tapped to Take on Kudzu : USDA ARS". www.ars.usda.gov. Retrieved 2019-07-17.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Harrington, Timothy B., Laura T. Rader-Dixon, and John W. Taylor. "Kudzu (Pueraria Montana) Community Responses to Herbicides, Burning, and High-density Loblolly Pine."^{[permanent dead link]} Weed Science,965-974, 2003.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hickman, Jonathan E., Shiliang Wu, Loretta J. Mickey, and Manuel T. Lerdau. "Kudzu (Pueraria Montana) Invasion Doubles Emissions of Nitric Oxide and Increases Ozone Pollution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 107.22, 10115-10119, 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah Forseth, Irwin N.; Innis, Anne F. (2004). "Kudzu (Pueraria montana): History, Physiology, and Ecology Combine to Make a Major Ecosystem Threat". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 23 (5). Taylor & Francis: 401–413. doi:10.1080/07352680490505150. ISSN 0735-2689. S2CID 84404633.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Conservation Commission of Missouri. "Kudzu." Archived 2011-05-26 at the Wayback Machine Missouri Department of Conservation,2011.
^ D. K. Jewett; C. J. Jiang; K. O. Britton; J. H. Sun; J. Tang (1 September 2003). "Characterizing Specimens of Kudzu and Related Taxa with RAPD's". Castanea. 68 (3): 254–260. ISSN 0008-7475. JSTOR 4034173.
^ Sun, J H; Li, Z-C; Jewett, D K; Britton, K O; Ye, W H; Ge, X-J (2005). "Genetic diversity of Pueraria lobata (kudzu) and closely related taxa as revealed by inter-simple sequence repeat analysis". Weed Research. 45: 255. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3180.2005.00462.x.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Mitich, L.W. "Kudzu (Pueraria lobata Ohwi)" Weed Technology, Vol. 14, 231-235, 2000.
^ Black, R.J. and Meerow, A.W. "Landscaping to Conserve Energy" Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, Vol. 102, 142-144. 1989.
^ ^a ^b ^c McGroarty, Michael J. "Kudzu, the Vine That Ate the South." How To Control Kudzu, 2010
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Keung, W.M. and Vallee, B.L. "Kudzu Root: An Ancient Chinese Source of Modern Antidipsotrophic Agents." Phytochemistry, Vol. 47, 499-506, 1998.
^ ^a ^b ^c Frye, Matthew J., Judith Hough-Goldstein, and Jiang-Hua Sun. "Biology and Preliminary Host Range Assessment of Two Potential Kudzu Biological Control Agents." Environmental Entomology, Vol. 36, 1430-1440, 2007.
^ Cogdell, Christina (2011). "Tearing Down the Grid". Design and Culture. 3 (1).
^ Marshall, Jessica "Kudzu Gets Kudos as a Potential Biofuel"Kudzu Gets Kudos as a Potential Biofuel, 2008 Archived November 19, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
^ "Webster, C.R.; Jenkins, M. A. & Jose, S. "Woody Invaders and the Challenges They Pose to Forest Ecosystems in the Eastern United States" Journal of Forestry, Vol. 104, Iss. 7, 366-274. 2006". doi:10.1093/JOF/104.7.366 (inactive 2021-04-29). S2CID 83640022. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2021 (link)
^ Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19
^ ^a ^b ^c Amstutz, Lisa J (2018). Invasive Species. Minneapolis, MN: Abdo Publishing. pp. 46–48. ISBN 9781532110245.
^ Miller, James H., and Ronald E. True."Herbicide Tests for Kudzu Eradication." Georgia Forestry Commission, Vol. 65, 1986.
^ ^a ^b Adams, Nicole E., et al. "Effects of Kudzu (Pueraria Montanta) Solarization on the Chemistry of an Upper Piedmont South Carolina Soil" Soil Science, Vol. 175, 61-71. 2010.

External links

Kudzu at the USDA National Invasive Species Information Center

[Blaustein-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Blaustein, R.J. (2001). "Kudzu's invasion into Southern United States life and culture". In McNeely, J. A. (ed.). The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimensions of Invasive Alien Species (PDF). IUCN. pp. 55–62. ISBN 2-8317-0602-5. Retrieved August 20, 2007.

[scidai-2] "Controlling Kudzu With Naturally Occurring Fungus". Science Daily. July 20, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-20.

[3] Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19

[4] "Fungus Tapped to Take on Kudzu : USDA ARS". www.ars.usda.gov. Retrieved 2019-07-17.

[Harrington-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Harrington, Timothy B., Laura T. Rader-Dixon, and John W. Taylor. "Kudzu (Pueraria Montana) Community Responses to Herbicides, Burning, and High-density Loblolly Pine."^{[permanent dead link]} Weed Science,965-974, 2003.

[Hickman-6] Hickman, Jonathan E., Shiliang Wu, Loretta J. Mickey, and Manuel T. Lerdau. "Kudzu (Pueraria Montana) Invasion Doubles Emissions of Nitric Oxide and Increases Ozone Pollution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 107.22, 10115-10119, 2010.

[Forseth-7] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah Forseth, Irwin N.; Innis, Anne F. (2004). "Kudzu (Pueraria montana): History, Physiology, and Ecology Combine to Make a Major Ecosystem Threat". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 23 (5). Taylor & Francis: 401–413. doi:10.1080/07352680490505150. ISSN 0735-2689. S2CID 84404633.

[MDC-8] Conservation Commission of Missouri. "Kudzu." Archived 2011-05-26 at the Wayback Machine Missouri Department of Conservation,2011.

[jewett2003-9] D. K. Jewett; C. J. Jiang; K. O. Britton; J. H. Sun; J. Tang (1 September 2003). "Characterizing Specimens of Kudzu and Related Taxa with RAPD's". Castanea. 68 (3): 254–260. ISSN 0008-7475. JSTOR 4034173.

[10] Sun, J H; Li, Z-C; Jewett, D K; Britton, K O; Ye, W H; Ge, X-J (2005). "Genetic diversity of Pueraria lobata (kudzu) and closely related taxa as revealed by inter-simple sequence repeat analysis". Weed Research. 45: 255. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3180.2005.00462.x.

[Mitich-11] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Mitich, L.W. "Kudzu (Pueraria lobata Ohwi)" Weed Technology, Vol. 14, 231-235, 2000.

[Black-12] Black, R.J. and Meerow, A.W. "Landscaping to Conserve Energy" Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, Vol. 102, 142-144. 1989.

[McGroarty-13] McGroarty, Michael J. "Kudzu, the Vine That Ate the South." How To Control Kudzu, 2010

[Keung-14] Keung, W.M. and Vallee, B.L. "Kudzu Root: An Ancient Chinese Source of Modern Antidipsotrophic Agents." Phytochemistry, Vol. 47, 499-506, 1998.

[Frye-15] Frye, Matthew J., Judith Hough-Goldstein, and Jiang-Hua Sun. "Biology and Preliminary Host Range Assessment of Two Potential Kudzu Biological Control Agents." Environmental Entomology, Vol. 36, 1430-1440, 2007.

[16] Cogdell, Christina (2011). "Tearing Down the Grid". Design and Culture. 3 (1).

[Marshall-17] Marshall, Jessica "Kudzu Gets Kudos as a Potential Biofuel"Kudzu Gets Kudos as a Potential Biofuel, 2008 Archived November 19, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

[Webster-18] "Webster, C.R.; Jenkins, M. A. & Jose, S. "Woody Invaders and the Challenges They Pose to Forest Ecosystems in the Eastern United States" Journal of Forestry, Vol. 104, Iss. 7, 366-274. 2006". doi:10.1093/JOF/104.7.366 (inactive 2021-04-29). S2CID 83640022. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2021 (link)

[19] Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19

[:0-20] Amstutz, Lisa J (2018). Invasive Species. Minneapolis, MN: Abdo Publishing. pp. 46–48. ISBN 9781532110245.

[Miller-21] Miller, James H., and Ronald E. True."Herbicide Tests for Kudzu Eradication." Georgia Forestry Commission, Vol. 65, 1986.

[Adams-22] Adams, Nicole E., et al. "Effects of Kudzu (Pueraria Montanta) Solarization on the Chemistry of an Upper Piedmont South Carolina Soil" Soil Science, Vol. 175, 61-71. 2010.

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 [[File:Kudzu on trees in Atlanta, Georgia.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Kudzu smothering trees in [[Atlanta|Atlanta, Georgia]].]]
 [[File:Kudzu graveyard (40580p).jpg|thumb|300px|A woodland area of [[Queens, New York]], blanketed by kudzu]]
-[[Kudzu]] is an [[Invasive species|invasive plant species]] in the [[United States]]. Its introduction has produced devastating environmental consequences.<ref name="blaustein">{{Cite web|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/ja/ja_blaustein001.pdf|title=Kudzu's invasion into Southern United States life and culture|author=Richard J. Blaustein|year=2001|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|format=PDF|access-date=August 20, 2007}}</ref> This has earned it the nickname "the vine that ate the South". It has been spreading rapidly in the [[Southern United States]], "easily outpacing the use of herbicide spraying and mowing, as well increasing the costs of these controls by $6 million annually".<ref name="scidai">{{cite web| url= https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/07/090719185107.htm | title=Controlling Kudzu With Naturally Occurring Fungus | work=[[Science Daily]] | date=July 20, 2009 | access-date=2009-07-20}}</ref> Estimates of the vine's spread vary, from the [[United States Forest Service]]'s 2015 estimate of 2,500&nbsp;acres (1,000&nbsp;ha - 10&nbsp;km²) per year<ref>Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19</ref> to the Department of Agriculture's estimate of as much as 150,000&nbsp;acres (61,000&nbsp;ha - 610&nbsp;km²) annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2009/fungus-tapped-to-take-on-kudzu/|title=Fungus Tapped to Take on Kudzu : USDA ARS|website=www.ars.usda.gov|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref>
+[[Kudzu]] is an [[Invasive species|invasive plant species]] in the [[United States]]. Its introduction has produced devastating environmental consequences.<ref name="Blaustein" /> This has earned it the nickname "the vine that ate the South". It has been spreading rapidly in the [[Southern United States]], "easily outpacing the use of herbicide spraying and mowing, as well increasing the costs of these controls by $6 million annually".<ref name="scidai">{{cite web| url= https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/07/090719185107.htm | title=Controlling Kudzu With Naturally Occurring Fungus | work=[[Science Daily]] | date=July 20, 2009 | access-date=2009-07-20}}</ref> Estimates of the vine's spread vary, from the [[United States Forest Service]]'s 2015 estimate of {{convert|2,500|acre|ha km2}} per year<ref>Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19</ref> to the Department of Agriculture's estimate of as much as {{convert|150,000|acre|ha km2}} annually.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2009/fungus-tapped-to-take-on-kudzu/|title=Fungus Tapped to Take on Kudzu : USDA ARS|website=www.ars.usda.gov|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref>
 ==History and Biology==
 ===Description===
-[[Kudzu]] is a [[perennial plant|perennial]] vine native to [[Asia]], primarily [[subtropics|subtropical]] and [[Temperate climate|temperate]] regions of [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]],<ref name=Harrington>Harrington, Timothy B., Laura T. Rader-Dixon, and John W. Taylor. [http://www.bioone.org.www.library.gatech.edu:2048/doi/full/10.1614/02-142 "Kudzu (''Pueraria Montana'') Community Responses to Herbicides, Burning, and High-density Loblolly Pine."]{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Weed Science'',965-974, 2003.</ref><ref name=Hickman>Hickman, Jonathan E., Shiliang Wu, Loretta J. Mickey, and Manuel T. Lerdau. "Kudzu (''Pueraria Montana'') Invasion Doubles Emissions of Nitric Oxide and Increases Ozone Pollution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 107.22, 10115-10119, 2010.</ref>  with [[Glossary of leaf morphology|trifoliate]] leaves composed of three [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]].<ref name=Forseth>Forseth. Jr., I.N. and Innis, Anne F."Kudzu (''Pueraria montana''): History, Physiology, and Ecology Combine to Make a Major Ecosystem Threat" ''Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences'', Vol. 23, 401-413, 2004.</ref><ref name=MDC>Conservation Commission of Missouri. [http://mdc.mo.gov/landwater-care/plant-management/invasive-plant-management/kudzu "Kudzu."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526102822/http://mdc.mo.gov/landwater-care/plant-management/invasive-plant-management/kudzu |date=2011-05-26 }} ''Missouri Department of Conservation'',2011.</ref> Five species in the genus ''[[Pueraria]]'' (''P. montana'', ''P. lobata'', ''P. edulis'', ''P. phaseoloides'' and ''P. thomsoni'') are closely related and kudzu populations in the United States seem to have ancestry from more than one of the species.<ref name="jewett2003">{{Cite journal| title = Characterizing Specimens of Kudzu and Related Taxa with RAPD's | jstor = 4034173 |author1=D. K. Jewett |author2=C. J. Jiang |author3=K. O. Britton |author4=J. H. Sun |author5=J. Tang | journal = Castanea | volume = 68 | issue = 3 |date=1 September 2003| pages = 254–260 | issn = 0008-7475 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3180.2005.00462.x | title = Genetic diversity of Pueraria lobata (kudzu) and closely related taxa as revealed by inter-simple sequence repeat analysis | first6 = X-J | last6 = Ge | first5 = W H | last5 = Ye | first4 = K O | last4 = Britton | first3 = D K | last3 = Jewett | first2 = Z-C | year = 2005 | last2 = Li | last1 = Sun | first1 = J H | journal = Weed Research | volume = 45 | page = 255 }}</ref> Each leaflet is large and [[oval|ovate]] with two to three lobes each and hair on the underside.<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Mitich>Mitich, L.W. "Kudzu (''Pueraria lobata Ohwi'')" Weed Technology, Vol. 14, 231-235, 2000.</ref> The leaves have the ability to [[nitrogen fixation|fix atmospheric nitrogen]], which can supply up to 95% of leaf [[nitrogen]] to the plant in poor soils.<ref name=Forseth />  Along the vines are [[Plant stem|nodes]], points at which stems or [[tendril]]s can propagate to increase support and attach to structures.<ref name=Forseth />   As a [[Vine|twining vine]], kudzu uses [[Plant stem|stems]] or tendrils that can extend from any node on the vine to attach to and climb most surfaces.<ref name=Harrington /><ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Black>Black, R.J. and Meerow, A.W. "Landscaping to Conserve Energy" ''Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society'', Vol. 102, 142-144. 1989.</ref> In addition, the nodes of the kudzu vine have the ability to root when exposed to soil, further anchoring the vine to the ground.<ref name=Harrington /><ref name=Forseth /> The roots are [[Tuber#Root tubers|tuberous]] and are high in starch and water content, and the twining of the plant allows for less carbon concentration in the construction of woody stems and greater concentration in roots, which aids root growth.<ref name=Forseth /> The roots can account for up to 40% of total plant biomass.<ref name=Harrington />
+[[Kudzu]] is a [[perennial plant|perennial]] vine native to [[Asia]], primarily [[subtropics|subtropical]] and [[Temperate climate|temperate]] regions of [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]],<ref name=Harrington>Harrington, Timothy B., Laura T. Rader-Dixon, and John W. Taylor. [http://www.bioone.org.www.library.gatech.edu:2048/doi/full/10.1614/02-142 "Kudzu (''Pueraria Montana'') Community Responses to Herbicides, Burning, and High-density Loblolly Pine."]{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ''Weed Science'',965-974, 2003.</ref><ref name=Hickman>Hickman, Jonathan E., Shiliang Wu, Loretta J. Mickey, and Manuel T. Lerdau. "Kudzu (''Pueraria Montana'') Invasion Doubles Emissions of Nitric Oxide and Increases Ozone Pollution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 107.22, 10115-10119, 2010.</ref>  with [[Glossary of leaf morphology|trifoliate]] leaves composed of three [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]].<ref name=Forseth>{{cite journal | last=Forseth | first=Irwin N. | last2=Innis | first2=Anne F. | title=Kudzu (''Pueraria montana''): History, Physiology, and Ecology Combine to Make a Major Ecosystem Threat | journal=[[Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences]] | publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] | volume=23 | issue=5 | year=2004 | issn=0735-2689 | doi=10.1080/07352680490505150 | pages=401–413 | s2cid=84404633}}</ref><ref name=MDC>Conservation Commission of Missouri. [http://mdc.mo.gov/landwater-care/plant-management/invasive-plant-management/kudzu "Kudzu."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526102822/http://mdc.mo.gov/landwater-care/plant-management/invasive-plant-management/kudzu |date=2011-05-26 }} ''Missouri Department of Conservation'',2011.</ref> Five species in the genus ''[[Pueraria]]'' (''P. montana'', ''P. lobata'', ''P. edulis'', ''P. phaseoloides'' and ''P. thomsoni'') are closely related and kudzu populations in the United States seem to have ancestry from more than one of the species.<ref name="jewett2003">{{Cite journal| title = Characterizing Specimens of Kudzu and Related Taxa with RAPD's | jstor = 4034173 |author1=D. K. Jewett |author2=C. J. Jiang |author3=K. O. Britton |author4=J. H. Sun |author5=J. Tang | journal = Castanea | volume = 68 | issue = 3 |date=1 September 2003| pages = 254–260 | issn = 0008-7475 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3180.2005.00462.x | title = Genetic diversity of ''Pueraria lobata'' (kudzu) and closely related taxa as revealed by inter-simple sequence repeat analysis | first6 = X-J | last6 = Ge | first5 = W H | last5 = Ye | first4 = K O | last4 = Britton | first3 = D K | last3 = Jewett | first2 = Z-C | year = 2005 | last2 = Li | last1 = Sun | first1 = J H | journal = Weed Research | volume = 45 | page = 255 }}</ref> Each leaflet is large and [[oval|ovate]] with two to three lobes each and hair on the underside.<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Mitich>Mitich, L.W. "Kudzu (''Pueraria lobata Ohwi'')" Weed Technology, Vol. 14, 231-235, 2000.</ref> The leaves have the ability to [[nitrogen fixation|fix atmospheric nitrogen]], which can supply up to 95% of leaf [[nitrogen]] to the plant in poor soils.<ref name=Forseth />  Along the vines are [[Plant stem|nodes]], points at which stems or [[tendril]]s can propagate to increase support and attach to structures.<ref name=Forseth />   As a [[Vine|twining vine]], kudzu uses [[Plant stem|stems]] or tendrils that can extend from any node on the vine to attach to and climb most surfaces.<ref name=Harrington /><ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Black>Black, R.J. and Meerow, A.W. "Landscaping to Conserve Energy" ''Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society'', Vol. 102, 142-144. 1989.</ref> In addition, the nodes of the kudzu vine have the ability to root when exposed to soil, further anchoring the vine to the ground.<ref name=Harrington /><ref name=Forseth /> The roots are [[Tuber#Root tubers|tuberous]] and are high in starch and water content, and the twining of the plant allows for less carbon concentration in the construction of woody stems and greater concentration in roots, which aids root growth.<ref name=Forseth /> The roots can account for up to 40% of total plant biomass.<ref name=Harrington />
 Kudzu's primary method of reproduction is [[Asexual reproduction|asexual]] [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetative spread (cloning)]] which is aided by the ability to root wherever a stem is exposed to soil.<ref name=Forseth /> For [[Plant reproduction#History of sexual reproduction of plants|sexual reproduction]], kudzu is entirely dependent on pollinators.<ref name=Forseth />
@@ Line 21: / Line 21: @@
 ===History of US introduction===
-The kudzu plant was introduced to the United States from Japan in 1876 at the [[Centennial Exposition]] in [[Philadelphia]].<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=MDC /><ref name=Keung>Keung, W.M. and Vallee, B.L. "Kudzu Root: An Ancient Chinese Source of Modern Antidipsotrophic Agents." ''Phytochemistry'', Vol. 47, 499-506, 1998.</ref> Kudzu was introduced to the Southeast in 1883 at the New Orleans Exposition. The vine was widely marketed in the Southeast as an ornamental plant to be used to shade porches,<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Frye>Frye, Matthew J., Judith Hough-Goldstein, and Jiang-Hua Sun. "Biology and Preliminary Host Range Assessment of Two Potential Kudzu Biological Control Agents." ''Environmental Entomology'', Vol. 36, 1430-1440, 2007.</ref> and in the first half of the 20th century, kudzu was distributed as a high-protein content cattle [[fodder]] and as a cover plant to prevent soil erosion. It was cultivated by [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] workers as a solution for the erosion during the [[Dust Bowl]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cogdell|first=Christina|year=2011|title=Tearing Down the Grid|journal=Design and Culture|volume=3|issue=1}}</ref> The [[Natural Resources Conservation Service|Soil Erosion Service]] recommended the use of kudzu to help control erosion of slopes which led to the government-aided distribution of 85 million seedlings and government-funded plantings of kudzu which paid $19.75 per [[hectare]].<ref name=Forseth /> By 1946, it was estimated that {{convert|1,200,000|ha|acre}} of kudzu had been planted.<ref name=Forseth /> When [[boll weevil]] infestations and the failure of cotton crops caused farmers to abandon their farms, kudzu plantings were left unattended.<ref name=Forseth /> The climate and environment of the Southeastern United States allowed the kudzu to grow virtually unchecked. In 1953 the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] removed kudzu from a list of suggested cover plants and listed it as a weed in 1970. By 1997, the vine was placed on the [[Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974|"Federal Noxious Weed List"]].<ref name=Harrington /><ref name=Forseth /> Today, kudzu is estimated to cover {{convert|3,000,000|ha|acre}} of land in the southeastern United States, mostly in [[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Tennessee]], [[Florida]], [[North Carolina]], [[South Carolina]] and [[Mississippi]].<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Mitich /> It has been recorded in [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], in [[Columbus, Ohio]], and in all five [[boroughs of New York City]].<ref name=Mitich />
+The kudzu plant was introduced to the United States from Japan in 1876 at the [[Centennial Exposition]] in [[Philadelphia]].<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=MDC /><ref name=Keung>Keung, W.M. and Vallee, B.L. "Kudzu Root: An Ancient Chinese Source of Modern Antidipsotrophic Agents." ''Phytochemistry'', Vol. 47, 499-506, 1998.</ref> Kudzu was introduced to the Southeast in 1883 at the New Orleans Exposition. The vine was widely marketed in the Southeast as an ornamental plant to be used to shade porches,<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Frye>Frye, Matthew J., Judith Hough-Goldstein, and Jiang-Hua Sun. "Biology and Preliminary Host Range Assessment of Two Potential Kudzu Biological Control Agents." ''Environmental Entomology'', Vol. 36, 1430-1440, 2007.</ref> and in the first half of the 20th century, kudzu was distributed as a high-protein content cattle [[fodder]] and as a cover plant to prevent soil erosion. It was cultivated by [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] workers as a solution for the erosion during the [[Dust Bowl]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cogdell|first=Christina|year=2011|title=Tearing Down the Grid|journal=Design and Culture|volume=3|issue=1}}</ref> The [[Natural Resources Conservation Service|Soil Erosion Service]] recommended the use of kudzu to help control erosion of slopes which led to the government-aided distribution of 85 million seedlings and government-funded plantings of kudzu which paid {{convert|19.75|$/ha|$/acre}}.<ref name=Forseth /> By 1946, it was estimated that {{convert|1,200,000|ha|acre}} of kudzu had been planted.<ref name=Forseth /> When [[boll weevil]] infestations and the failure of cotton crops caused farmers to abandon their farms, kudzu plantings were left unattended.<ref name=Forseth /> The climate and environment of the Southeastern United States allowed the kudzu to grow virtually unchecked. In 1953 the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] removed kudzu from a list of suggested cover plants and listed it as a weed in 1970. By 1997, the vine was placed on the [[Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974|"Federal Noxious Weed List"]].<ref name=Harrington /><ref name=Forseth /> Today, kudzu is estimated to cover {{convert|3,000,000|ha|acre}} of land in the southeastern United States, mostly in [[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Tennessee]], [[Florida]], [[North Carolina]], [[South Carolina]] and [[Mississippi]].<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Mitich /> It has been recorded in [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], in [[Columbus, Ohio]], and in all five [[boroughs of New York City]].<ref name=Mitich />
 ===Uses and cultivation===
@@ Line 34: / Line 34: @@
 ===New communities===
-Kudzu was intentionally introduced to North America by the Soil Erosion Service and [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] in the 1930s for the purpose of controlling soil erosion in the American Southeast.<ref name=Forseth />  When kudzu was first introduced in the southeast, it was initially used as an ornamental vine to shade homes. By the early 20th century, southerners began to use kudzu for purposes other than ornamentation and so kudzu began to come closer in contact with the land which, in turn, encouraged its spread throughout the southeast.<ref name=Blaustein>Blaustein, R.J. (2001). "Kudzu's invasion into Southern United States life and culture". In McNeely, J. A. [http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/142047.pdf ''The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimensions of Invasive Alien Species''] (PDF). IUCN. pp.&nbsp;55–62. {{ISBN|2-8317-0602-5}}.</ref>  In the 135 years since its introduction, kudzu has spread over three million [[Hectare|hectares (ha)]] of the southern United States, and continues to 'consume' the south at an estimated rate of {{convert|50000|ha|acre}} per year, destroying power lines, buildings, and native vegetation in its path.<ref name=Webster>Webster, C.R.; Jenkins, M. A. & Jose, S. "Woody Invaders and the Challenges They Pose to Forest Ecosystems in the Eastern United States" Journal of Forestry, Vol. 104, 366-274. 2006.</ref> This claim, however, was disputed in 2015 with the [[United States Forest Service]] estimating an increase of 2,500&nbsp;acres (1,000&nbsp;ha) per year.<ref>Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19</ref> In the United States, kudzu is extensively reported in [[Alabama]], [[Arkansas]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Delaware]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Kentucky]], [[Louisiana]], [[Maryland]], [[Missouri]], [[Mississippi]], [[North Carolina]], [[North Dakota]], [[New Jersey]], [[Oregon]], [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[South Carolina]], [[Tennessee]], [[Texas]], [[Virginia]], and [[West Virginia]].  Of these states, three in the southeast have the heaviest infestations: Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.<ref name=Blaustein />
+Kudzu was intentionally introduced to North America by the Soil Erosion Service and [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] in the 1930s for the purpose of controlling soil erosion in the American Southeast.<ref name=Forseth />  When kudzu was first introduced in the southeast, it was initially used as an ornamental vine to shade homes. By the early 20th century, southerners began to use kudzu for purposes other than ornamentation and so kudzu began to come closer in contact with the land which, in turn, encouraged its spread throughout the southeast.<ref name=Blaustein>{{cite chapter|author=Blaustein, R.J.|date=2001|chapter=Kudzu's invasion into Southern United States life and culture|editor=McNeely, J. A.|url=http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/142047.pdf|title=The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimensions of Invasive Alien Species|format=PDF|publisher=[[IUCN]]|pages=55–62|isbn=2-8317-0602-5|access-date=August 20, 2007}}</ref>  In the 135 years since its introduction, kudzu has spread over three million [[Hectare|hectares (ha)]] of the southern United States, and continues to 'consume' the south at an estimated rate of {{convert|50000|ha|acre}} per year, destroying power lines, buildings, and native vegetation in its path.<ref name=Webster>{{cite journal|title=Webster, C.R.; Jenkins, M. A. & Jose, S. "Woody Invaders and the Challenges They Pose to Forest Ecosystems in the Eastern United States" Journal of Forestry, Vol. 104, Iss. 7, 366-274. 2006 | doi=10.1093/JOF/104.7.366 | s2cid=83640022 | url=http://academic.oup.com/jof/article/104/7/366/4598738 | doi-broken-date=2021-04-29}}</ref> This claim, however, was disputed in 2015 with the [[United States Forest Service]] estimating an increase of {{convert|2,500|acre|ha km2}} per year.<ref>Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19</ref> In the United States, kudzu is extensively reported in [[Alabama]], [[Arkansas]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Delaware]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Kentucky]], [[Louisiana]], [[Maryland]], [[Missouri]], [[Mississippi]], [[North Carolina]], [[North Dakota]], [[New Jersey]], [[Oregon]], [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[South Carolina]], [[Tennessee]], [[Texas]], [[Virginia]], and [[West Virginia]].  Of these states, three in the southeast have the heaviest infestations: Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.<ref name=Blaustein />
 ===Ecological relationships===
 Kudzu kills or damages other plants by smothering them under a blanket of leaves, encompassing tree trunks, breaking branches, or even uprooting entire trees. Kudzu's ability to grow quickly, survive in areas of low nitrogen availability, and acquire resources quickly allows it to out-compete native species. Of the plants that can successfully compete  with kudzu, many are other invasive species such as the [[Ligustrum sinense|Chinese privet]] and the [[Lonicera japonica|Japanese honeysuckle]].<ref name=Blaustein /> In the southeast, the spread of kudzu is especially troublesome because of the high level of [[biodiversity]] in this region that is not found in other regions of the United States. Kudzu and other invasive weeds pose a significant threat to the biodiversity in the southeast. They reduce the environment to impoverished "vine barrens".<ref name=Blaustein /> The fast growth and high competitive ability is achieved through several key features of kudzu that are detailed below.
-Kudzu is a very stress-tolerant plant. Kudzu is [[Drought tolerance|drought tolerant]] and only the above ground portions of the plant are damaged by frost.  Kudzu also forms [[Symbiosis|symbiotic relationships]] with [[Diazotroph|nitrogen-fixing bacteria]] to convert [[Nitrogen|atmospheric nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>)]] into [[ammonium]] which can be used by surrounding plants.  Now the dominant nitrogen-fixing plant in the eastern United States, kudzu fixes an estimated {{convert|235|kg|lb}} of nitrogen per hectare per year, which is an order of magnitude higher than the rates of native species.<ref name=Hickman />   This ability allows it to flourish in nitrogen-poor sites where other plants are unable to grow.  In the absence of other plants, nitrogen then builds up in the soil, allowing the maintenance of large leaf areas and high [[Photosynthesis|photosynthetic rates]].<ref name=Forseth />
+Kudzu is a very stress-tolerant plant. Kudzu is [[Drought tolerance|drought tolerant]] and only the above ground portions of the plant are damaged by frost.  Kudzu also forms [[Symbiosis|symbiotic relationships]] with [[Diazotroph|nitrogen-fixing bacteria]] to convert [[Nitrogen|atmospheric nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>)]] into [[ammonium]] which can be used by surrounding plants.  Now the dominant nitrogen-fixing plant in the eastern United States, kudzu fixes an estimated {{convert|235|kg/ha|lb/acre|frac=16}} of nitrogen per year, which is an order of magnitude higher than the rates of native species.<ref name=Hickman />   This ability allows it to flourish in nitrogen-poor sites where other plants are unable to grow.  In the absence of other plants, nitrogen then builds up in the soil, allowing the maintenance of large leaf areas and high [[Photosynthesis|photosynthetic rates]].<ref name=Forseth />
 While little research has been conducted on the impacts of plant invasion on atmospheric conditions, a study conducted at [[Stony Brook University]] in [[New York (state)|New York]] shows that kudzu has increased the concentration of atmospheric [[NOx]] in the eastern United States, which causes a 2 [[Parts-per notation|ppb]] increase in [[tropospheric ozone]] during high temperature events in addition to [[soil acidification]], [[Podzol|aluminum mobilization]], and leaching of [[nitrate]] (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup>) into aquatic [[ecosystem]]s.<ref name=Hickman />
-Once established in a habitat, kudzu is able to grow very quickly. The vine has a growth rate of 0.3 m (1 foot) every day. The maximum length the vine can reach is 30 m (98 feet).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Amstutz|first=Lisa J|title=Invasive Species|publisher=Abdo Publishing|year=2018|isbn=9781532110245|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=46 - 48}}</ref> Kudzu is also able to allocate large portions of [[carbon]] to root growth, allowing it to acquire sufficient nutrients for rapid growth and to spread [[Clonal colony|clonally]].  Primary kudzu roots can weigh over {{convert|180|kg|lb}}, grow to {{convert|18|cm|in}} in diameter, and penetrate soil at a rate of {{convert|3|cm|in}} in depth per day.  Kudzu can also root wherever stems make contact with soil, allowing vines to grow in all directions.  Once rooted, most stems lose connection with each other within one year, allowing each stem to become a physiologically independent individual, and requiring that all stems be treated or removed in order to eliminate a population.<ref name=Forseth />
+Once established in a habitat, kudzu is able to grow very quickly. The vine has a growth rate of 0.3 m (1 foot) every day. The maximum length the vine can reach is 30 m (98 feet).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Amstutz|first=Lisa J|title=Invasive Species|publisher=Abdo Publishing|year=2018|isbn=9781532110245|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=46 - 48}}</ref> Kudzu is also able to allocate large portions of [[carbon]] to root growth, allowing it to acquire sufficient nutrients for rapid growth and to spread [[Clonal colony|clonally]].  Primary kudzu roots can weigh over {{convert|180|kg|lb}}, grow to {{convert|18|cm|in|0}} in diameter, and penetrate soil at a rate of {{convert|3|cm|in|frac=8}} in depth per day.  Kudzu can also root wherever stems make contact with soil, allowing vines to grow in all directions.  Once rooted, most stems lose connection with each other within one year, allowing each stem to become a physiologically independent individual, and requiring that all stems be treated or removed in order to eliminate a population.<ref name=Forseth />
 In addition to its abilities to obtain nutrients and spread quickly, kudzu leaves have [[Heliotropism|paraheliotropic]] movements, meaning that they move in response to the movement of the sun in order to maximize [[Photosynthesis|photosynthetic productivity]].<ref name=Forseth />  Kudzu is also a "structural [[Parasitism|parasite]]", meaning that, rather than supporting itself, it grows on top of other plants and buildings to reach light.  Its ability to reproduce and spread quickly allows it to quickly cover shrubs, trees, and forests, where it blocks the sun's rays from the plants below it, decreasing or completely eliminating their photosynthetic productivity.<ref name=Forseth />
 ===Economic and cultural impact===
-The [[Invasive species#Economic|economic impact]] of kudzu in the United States is estimated at $100 million to $500 million lost per year in [[Primary production|forest productivity]].<ref name=Forseth />  In addition, it takes about $5,000 per hectare (2.5 acres) per year to control kudzu.<ref name=Forseth />  Power companies must spend about $1.5 million per year to repair damage to power lines.<ref name=Forseth />
+The [[Invasive species#Economic|economic impact]] of kudzu in the United States is estimated at $100 million to $500 million lost per year in [[Primary production|forest productivity]].<ref name=Forseth />  In addition, it takes about {{convert|5,000|$/ha|$/acre}} per year to control kudzu.<ref name=Forseth />  Power companies must spend about $1.5 million per year to repair damage to power lines. Even so, occasional downed lines continue throughout the south.<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Blaustein />
-Kudzu management is of great concern in the management of [[National Park Service|national parks]] in the southeast such as [[Vicksburg National Military Park]], [[Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park]], and [[Great Smoky Mountains National Park]]. In Vicksburg, kudzu has invaded 190 of the 2,000 total acres of the park and threatens to diminish the historical value of the park.<ref name=Blaustein />
+Kudzu management is of great concern in the management of [[National Park Service|national parks]] in the southeast such as [[Vicksburg National Military Park]], [[Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park]], and [[Great Smoky Mountains National Park]]. In Vicksburg, kudzu has invaded {{convert|190|acre|ha}} of the {{convert|2,000|acre|ha|adj=pre|total}} of the park and threatens to diminish the historical value of the park.<ref name=Blaustein />
 ==Control and removal methods==
@@ Line 59: / Line 59: @@
 ===Chemical===
-A different and less time-consuming option for the control of kudzu is treatment with herbicides. Some common herbicides used are [[picloram]] and [[triclopyr]]; the most effective are picloram and [[tebuthiuron]].<ref name=Harrington /> However, chemical treatments are expensive, and killing off the plant completely requires large amounts of herbicides (40-80 gallons per acre).<ref name=MDC /> Herbicides are found to be most effective when they are used during the typical growing season, June–October, and when used for successive years. One case study saw a significant decrease in the growth of kudzu after just two years, whereas another study required the use of the herbicide for up to ten years.<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Miller>Miller, James H., and Ronald E. True."Herbicide Tests for Kudzu Eradication." ''Georgia Forestry Commission'', Vol. 65, 1986.</ref>
+A different and less time-consuming option for the control of kudzu is treatment with herbicides. Some common herbicides used are [[picloram]] and [[triclopyr]]; the most effective are picloram and [[tebuthiuron]].<ref name=Harrington /> However, chemical treatments are expensive, and killing off the plant completely requires large amounts of herbicides ({{convert|40-80|USgal/acre|L/ha}}).<ref name=MDC /> Herbicides are found to be most effective when they are used during the typical growing season, June–October, and when used for successive years. One case study saw a significant decrease in the growth of kudzu after just two years, whereas another study required the use of the herbicide for up to ten years.<ref name=Forseth /><ref name=Miller>Miller, James H., and Ronald E. True."Herbicide Tests for Kudzu Eradication." ''Georgia Forestry Commission'', Vol. 65, 1986.</ref>
 Another form of chemical removal other than herbicides is [[soil solarization]]. Soil solarization is a thermal (heat) method that utilizes [[solar energy|solar-enhanced]] heating of the soil to kill the root system of the plant, thereby avoiding the use of [[pesticide]]s and other more dangerous (fire-based) means to control the plant.<ref name=Adams>Adams, Nicole E., et al. "Effects of Kudzu (''Pueraria Montanta'') Solarization on the Chemistry of an Upper Piedmont South Carolina Soil" ''Soil Science'', Vol. 175, 61-71. 2010.</ref>  Soil solarization affects the [[micronutrient]]s and [[Nutrient|macronutrients]] in the soil. The most prominent effect of this method of control is the increase in [[potassium]]. The higher level of potassium in all soils undergoing solarization demonstrates the successful release of K from decomposing kudzu plant tissues. Such a rise in potassium levels by solarization is important for soils in the Southeastern United States that tend to be highly weathered and generally have low potassium contents.<ref name=Adams />
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 As chemical treatments are often ineffective for long term control and mechanical removal is likewise difficult and costly for long-term control, kudzu makes a good candidate for [[biological pest control]].<ref name=Frye /> There are several biological means that are already in place and more that may be implemented to control the growth of kudzu. [[Blight|Bacterial blights]], insect [[Herbivore|herbivory]], and insect seed [[predation]] occur in high levels in field populations of kudzu.<ref name=Forseth />  Seed predation is quite prevalent, with up to 81% of seeds incurring damage in populations studied in North Carolina. A different survey found twenty-five different species of insect feeding on the kudzu.<ref name=Forseth /> From this survey, several leaf-feeding beetles and sawflies that have no other known hosts were identified.<ref name=Forseth />  A separate study also found two weevils that attacked the stems of kudzu and eight beetles that complete larval development in the kudzu roots.<ref name=Forseth /> When evaluations of potential control agents are made, the range of the control agents must be taken into account. Organisms that feed on kudzu will often feed on similar non-target species that are important in agriculture, such as soybeans and [[Amphicarpaea bracteata|hog-peanuts]]. Potential control agents have to be rejected if they are shown in laboratory and field tests to feed on these non-target plants.<ref name=Frye />
-Of the diseases that have been identified as potential biological control agents, the fungal pathogen ''[[Myrothecium verrucaria]]'' has been shown to be very promising. Disease development is very high at around 30&nbsp;°C to 40&nbsp;°C, which matches field conditions. In addition, the fungus does not spread outside of areas where it is applied. However, one major drawback of this biological control agent is that it is highly toxic to mammals, so extreme care would have to be taken in handling this organism.<ref name=Forseth /> Other pathogens have been tested as potential biological control agents, but have proven to be ineffective.<ref name=Forseth />
+Of the diseases that have been identified as potential biological control agents, the fungal pathogen ''[[Myrothecium verrucaria]]'' has been shown to be very promising. Disease development is very high at around {{convert|30-40|C|F|0}}, which matches field conditions. In addition, the fungus does not spread outside of areas where it is applied. However, one major drawback of this biological control agent is that it is highly toxic to mammals, so extreme care would have to be taken in handling this organism.<ref name=Forseth /> Other pathogens have been tested as potential biological control agents, but have proven to be ineffective.<ref name=Forseth />
 === Animals ===
-Currently, grazing by goats and pigs is the best method for control of the vine. <ref name=":0" /> Another way to control kudzu is goats and sheep. A small herd can reduce an acre (0.4 ha) of kudzu every day.{{Citation needed|reason=use of "most efficient" implies that there is data to support this; also - need data to support the acre per day claim|date=June 2013}}
+Currently, grazing by goats and pigs is the best method for control of the vine. <ref name=":0" /> Another way to control kudzu is goats and sheep. A small herd can reduce {{convert|1|acre|ha}} an acre (0.4 ha) of kudzu every day.{{Citation needed|reason=use of "most efficient" implies that there is data to support this; also - need data to support the acre per day claim|date=June 2013}}
 ==See also==