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"astrology", as used today, seems to be a stretch - she was measuring distances between planets and orbits - not legends and foretellings.
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[[Image:Hypatia.jpg|thumb|An imagined portrait of Hypatia of Alexandria]]
[[Image:Hypatia portrait.png|thumb|A 1908 portrait of Hypatia]]
'''Hypatia of Alexandria''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Υπατία''; born between [[350]] and [[370]] AD – [[415]] AD) was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]<ref>Mueller, I., 'Hypatia (370?-415)', in Women of Mathematics: A Biobibliographic Sourcebook , eds. L.S. Grinstein & P.J. Campbell, New York: Greenwood Press, p. 74-79, 1987.</ref> or [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]]
<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041785/Hypatia Hypatia], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'': ''"Egyptian Neoplatonist philosopher who was the first notable woman in mathematics."''</ref> scholar, considered the first notable woman in [[mathematics]], who also taught [[philosophy]] and [[astronomy]]<ref>http://www.skyscript.co.uk/hypatia.html</ref>. She lived in [[Ægyptus|Roman Egypt]], and was killed by a Christian mob who blamed her for religious turmoil. Hailed as a "valiant defender of science against religion"<ref>[[John William Draper]], as quoted in the 1996 ''The Literary Legend of Hypatia'' by Maria Dzielska</ref>, some suggest that her murder marked the end of the Hellenistic Age.<ref>Women Philosophers in the Ancient Greek World: Donning the Mantle, by Kathleen Wider. Hypatia © 1986 Indiana University Press p. 49-50</ref>


A [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] [[Hellenistic philosophy|philosopher]], she followed the school characterized by the 3rd century [[Plotinus]], and discouraged mysticism - while encouraging logical and mathematical studies.<ref name="socrates">[[Socrates Scholasticus]], ''Ecclesiastical History''.</ref>
'''Hypatia of Alexandria''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Υπατία''; born between [[350]] and [[370]] AD – [[415]] AD) was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]<ref name="Dictionary of Scientific Biography">{{cite book | title=The Hutchinson dictionary of scientific biography | author = Research Machines plc. | location = Abingdon, Oxon | publisher = Helicon Publishing | year = 2004 | pages = 608 | quote = '''Hypatia (''c.'' 370-415)''' Greek natural philosopher who is credited with being the first female astronomer and mathematician of note. She was regarded for centuries as being the only woman scientist of the ancient world (apart perhaps from Maria the Jewess, the 1-st century Alexandrian alchemist).}}</ref><ref>Mueller, I., 'Hypatia (370?-415)', in Women of Mathematics: A Biobibliographic Sourcebook , eds. L.S. Grinstein & P.J. Campbell, New York: Greenwood Press, p. 74-79, 1987.
<BR>Osen, L.M., Women in Algebra, Cambridge, Mass. and London, England: M.I.T. Press, 1990.{{page number}}
<BR>Perl, T., Biographies of Women Mathematicians and Related Activities, Menlo Park, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1978.{{page number}}
<BR>Greek Science after Aristotle, G. E. R. Lloyd, Norton, N.Y., 1973.{{page number}}
<BR>A Source Book in Greek Science, M. R. Cohen and I. E. Drabkin, Harvard, 1966.{{page number}}
<BR>Hypatia's Heritage: A History of Women in Science, Margaret Alic, The Women's Press, London 1986.{{page number}}
<BR>A History of Science, W. C. Dampier, Cambridge, 1929.{{page number}}
<BR>M Dzielska, Hypatia of Alexandria (Harvard, 1995).{{page number}}
<BR>T L Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics (2 Vols.) (Oxford, 1921).{{page number}}
<BR>B L van der Waerden, Science Awakening (New York, 1954).{{page number}}
<BR>Khan Amore, Hypatia, AuthorHouse, 2001.{{page number}}</ref><ref name="Katz p184"/>
or [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]]<ref name="Katz p184">Victor J. Katz (1998), ''A History of Mathematics: An Introduction'', p. 184. Addison Wesley, ISBN 0321016181.
{{quote|"But what we really want to know is to what extent the Alexandrian mathematicians of the period from the first to the fifth centuries C.E. were Greek. Certainly, all of them wrote in Greek and were part of the Greek intellectual community of Alexandria. And most modern studies conclude that the Greek community coexisted [...] So should we assume that [[Ptolemy]] and [[Diophantus]], [[Pappus of Alexandria|Pappus]] and Hypatia were ethnically Greek, that their ancestors had come from Greece at some point in the past but had remained effectively isolated from the Egyptians? It is, of course, impossible to answer this question definatively. But research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities [...] And it is known that Greek marriage contracts increasingly came to resemble Egyptian ones. In addition, even from the founding of Alexandria, small numbers of Egyptians were admitted to the privaleged classes in the city to fulfill numerous civic roles. Of course, it was essential in such cases for the Egyptians to become "Hellenized," to adopt Greek habits and the Greek language. Given that the Alexandrian mathematicians mentioned here were active several hundred years after the founding of the city, it would seem at least equally possible that they were ethnically Egyptian as that they remained ethnically Greek. In any case, it is unreasonable to portray them with purely European features when no physical descriptions exist."}}</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9041785/Hypatia Hypatia], [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]:
{{quote|"Egyptian Neoplatonist philosopher who was the first notable woman in mathematics."}}</ref>
[[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] [[Hellenistic philosophy|philosopher]], the first notable woman in [[mathematics]], and who also taught in the fields of [[astronomy]] and [[astrology]]. She lived in [[Alexandria]] in [[Ægyptus|Roman Egypt]] at the turn of the 5th century, at a time when [[paganism]] was actively suppressed. She died in 415 AD, murdered in a particular brutal way involving torture, by [[Christian]] [[monks]]. Bishop Cyril of Alexandria attempted a cover-up of her murder, but Hypatia will probably always be remembered in part because of the way she died. Bertrand Russell said of her death, "After this, Alexandria was troubled by philosophers no more." Many historians say that this act was the signal of the end of the Hellenistic Age.<!-- source: Women Philosophers in the Ancient Greek World: Donning the Mantle, by Kathleen Wider
Hypatia © 1986 Indiana University Press p. 49-50
-->


== Life ==
Letters written to Hypatia by her [[pupil]] [[Synesius]] give an idea of her intellectual milieu. She was of the NeoPlatonic school, although her adherence was to the writings of [[Plotinus]], the 3rd century follower of Plato and principal of the [[neo-Platonic]] school.<ref> Unlike the leaders of the Athenian NeoPlatonic School during her time, Hypatia discouraged mysticism and encouraged logic and mathematical studies. Christian historiographer Socrates Scholasticus in his Ecclesiastical History portrays her as follows:
[[Image:Hypatia Sanzio.png|thumb|Hypatia, as depicted in [[Raphael]]'s ''[[The School of Athens]]''.]]
Hypatia travelled to both [[Athens]] and [[Italy]] to study,<ref>http://www.inventions.org/culture/female/hypatia.html</ref> before becoming head of the Platonist school at Alexandria in approximately 400 AD,<ref>''Historical Dictionary of Feminism'', by Janet K. Boles, Diane Long Hoeveler. pp 166.</ref> and would teach [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] to anybody willing to listen,<ref name="suda" /> including a number of Christians.<ref>Bregman, J. (1982). "Synesius of Cyrene: Philosopher-bishop". Berkley: University of California Press.</ref> and foreigners<<ref name="socrates" /> who came to her classes.


Although Hypatia was herself a pagan, she was respected by a number of Christians, and later held up by Christian authors as a [[symbol]] of [[virtue]].<ref name="socrates" /> The [[Byzantine]] ''[[Suda]]'' controversially<ref>Kingsley, Charles. "Hypatia", preface, quoting and agreeing with Gibbon</ref> declared her "the wife of Isidore the Philosopher"<ref name="suda" /> but agreed she had remained a [[virgin]].<ref>http://www.abc.net.au/science/slab/inspire/hypatia.htm</ref>
There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not unfrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in going to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more.</ref>


Hypatia rebuffed a suitor by showing him her [[sanitary napkin|menstrual rags]], claiming they demonstrated that there was "nothing beautiful" about carnal desires.<ref name="suda">[http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1&searchstr=Hypatia&field=hw_eng&num_per_page=100 Suda online, Upsilon 166] </ref>
Later sources attribute several works to Hypatia, including commentaries on [[Diophantus]]'s ''Arithmetica'', on [[Apollonius of Perga|Apollonius]]'s ''Conics'', and on [[Ptolemy]]'s works, but none have survived. Her contributions to science are reputed (on scant evidence) to include the invention, working with her father [[Theon of Alexandria|Theon]], of the [[astrolabe]] and the [[hydrometer]].


{{wikisource|Letter to Hypatia}}
== Life and career ==
Hypatia maintained correspondence with her former pupil Bishop of Ptolomais [[Synesius|Synesius of Cyrene]].<ref> A. Fitzgerald, Letters of Synesius of Cyrene, London, 1926. ([http://www.geocities.com/hckarlso/sletter154.html Letter 154 of Synesius of Cyrene to Hypatia]).</ref> Together with the references by [[Damascius]], these are the only writings with descriptions or information from her pupils that survive.<ref name="maria">Dzielska, Maria. ''Hypatia of Alexandria''. Oxford Press, 1996.</ref>
Hypatia was the daughter of [[Theon of Alexandria|Theon]], who was her teacher and the last man of the [[Museum]] of Alexandria. Hypatia did not teach in the Museum, but received her pupils in her own home. Hypatia became head of the Platonist school at Alexandria in about 400. There she taught on mathematics and [[philosophy]], and counted many prominent Christians among her students. No images of her exist, but nineteenth-century writers and artists envisioned her as an [[Athene]]-like beauty.


The contemporary Christian historiographer [[Socrates Scholasticus]] described her in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' as follows:
In 391, [[Theophilus of Alexandria|Theophilus]], the patriarch of Alexandria, ordered the destruction of some of the native [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman pagan]] temples in the city, which may have included the Musaeum and certainly included the [[Serapeum]] (a temple for the worship of [[Serapis]] and "daughter library" to the [[Library of Alexandria|Great Library]]). In the same year Emperor [[Theodosius I]] had published an edict prohibiting various aspects of pagan worship, whereupon (although this was part of a wider phenomenon) Christians throughout the Roman Empire embarked upon a thorough campaign to destroy or [[Christianization|christianize]] pagan places of worship.


:''There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not unfrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in going to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more.''<ref name="socrates" />
Hypatia lived during a conflict between pagans and Christians, who were demanding the final destruction of paganism as an imperial institution. Hypatia, herself a pagan, was respected by many Christians, and was even exalted by a few later Christian authors as a [[symbol]] of [[virtue]], often being portrayed by them as a [[virgin]] until her death. The [[Suda]] is one such source, which also tells the story of her rebuffing a suitor by throwing [[sanitary napkin]]s at him, to show him that sexual love was carnal rather than spiritual.<ref> Suda online, Upsilon 166, 6[http://www.stoa.org/sol-bin/search.pl?db=REAL&search_method=QUERY&login=guest&enlogin=guest&user_list=LIST&page_num=1&searchstr=Hypatia&field=hw_eng&num_per_page=100] Accessed [[22 June]] [[2006]]. "She was so very beautiful and attractive that one of those who attended her lectures fell in love with her. He was not able to contain his desire, but he informed her of his condition. Ignorant reports say that Hypatia relieved him of his disease by [[music]]; but truth proclaims that music failed to have any effect. She brought some of her female rags and threw them before him, showing him the signs of her unclean origin, and said, "You love this, O youth, and there is nothing beautiful about it." His soul was turned away by shame and surprise at the unpleasant sight, and he was brought to his right mind."
</ref> These later portrayals are not entirely reliable, as they often contradict one another. It is generally agreed that she never officially married, but lifelong virginity is hard to prove.


==Works==
Her contemporary, the Christian historiographer [[Socrates Scholasticus]] in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' portrays her as follows:
[[Image:Hypatia (1900 Play.PNG|thumb||150px|An actress, possibly [[Mary Anderson (stage actress)|Mary Anderson]], in the title role of the play "Hypatia" circa 1900.]]
Many of the works commonly attributed to Hypatia are believed to have been collaborative works with her father.


A partial list of specific accomplishments follows;
<blockquote>
There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not unfrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in going to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more.
</blockquote>


*A commentary on the 13-volume ''[[Arithmetica]]'' by [[Diophantus]]<ref>http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Works/Hypatia.htm</ref>
Some insight into the intellectual conflict of early 5th century Alexandria is given by the letters written by [[Synesius]] of Cyrene, Bishop of Ptolomais, to Hypatia, whom he loved and respected as his previous teacher. In one of them, he complains about people who begin to undertake philosophy after failing at some other career: "''Their philosophy consists in a very simple formula, that of calling God to witness, as Plato did, whenever they deny anything or whenever they assert anything. A shadow would surpass these men in uttering anything to the point; but their pretensions are extraordinary.''" In this letter, he also tells Hypatia that "the same men" had accused him of storing "unrevised copies" of books in his library. <ref> Letter 154 of Synesius of Cyrene to Hypatia ([http://www.geocities.com/hckarlso/sletter154.html online version]).</ref> This suggests that books were rewritten to suit the prevailing Christian dogma, which may also relate to the difficulty of finding accurate contemporary information about Hypatia's life and death.
*Edited her father's commentary on [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]''<ref>http://cosmopolis.com/people/hypatia.html</ref>
*Edited her father's commentary on [[Euclid]]'s ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]''<ref>Grout, James. [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/hypatia.html Encyclopædia Romana]</ref>
*Edited a commentary that simplified [[Apollonius of Perga|Apollonius]]'s ''Conics''<ref name="trincoll">http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/phil/philo/phils/hypatia.html</ref>
*She wrote the text ''The Astronomical Canon''<ref name="beauty">Whitfield, Bryan J. [http://math.coe.uga.edu/tme/v06n1/4whitfield.pdf The Beauty of Reasoning: A Reexamination of Hypatia of Alexandra]</ref>


Her contributions to science are reputed to include the charting of celestial bodies<ref>http://www.skyscript.co.uk/hypatia.html</ref> and the invention of the [[hydrometer]],<ref>Ethlie Ann Vare and Greg Ptacek, [http://www.inventions.org/culture/female/hypatia.html Mothers of Invention] 1988, pp. 24-26.</ref> used to determine the relative density of liquids.
== Death ==
Theories about the origins of the mob violence that ended Hypatia's life range from a local, spontaneous Christian uprising tolerated by the Christian [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Patriarch]] [[Cyril of Alexandria]] over a conflict between Cyril and the city prefect [[Orestes (prefect)|Orestes]]; to a conspiracy by the Emperor himself; to a lawless, civilian "peasant stock" mob (soldiers are never mentioned) made up of Christians and non-Christians alike, led by a man named "Peter". Note that in the best account we have, just below, the mob is not only described as the Christian populace, but the place of her murder is, specifically, a church.


Her pupil [[Synesius]] wrote a letter defending her as the inventor of the [[astrolabe]], although earlier astrolabes predate Hypatia's model by at least a century - and her father had gained fame for his treatise on the subject.<ref name="trincoll" />
[[Socrates Scholasticus]] described her death thus in his ''Ecclesiastical History'':


== Death ==
{{quote|Yet even she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace, that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop. Some of them therefore, hurried away by a fierce and bigoted zeal, whose ringleader was a reader named Peter, waylaid her returning home, and dragging her from her carriage, they took her to the church called Caesareum, where they completely stripped her, and then murdered her by scraping her skin off with tiles and bits of shell. After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them. This affair brought not the least opprobrium, not only upon Cyril, but also upon the whole Alexandrian church. And surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort. This happened in the month of March during Lent, in the fourth year of Cyril's episcopate, under the tenth consulate of Honorius, and the sixth of Theodosius <nowiki>[AD 415]</nowiki>.}}
[[Image:Hypatia (Charles William Mitchell).jpg|thumb|An 1885 painting by [[Charles William Mitchell]].]]
Believed to have been the the reason for the strained relationship between the Imperial Prefect [[Orestes (prefect)|Orestes]] and the Bishop [[Cyril of Jerusalem|Cyril]], Hypatia attracted the ire of a Christian population eager to see the two reconciled.


One day in March 415CE<ref name="mac">{{MacTutor Biography|id=Hypatia}}</ref>, during the season of [[Lent]], her chariot was waylaid on her route home by a Christian mob, possibly [[Wadi El Natrun|Nitrian monks]]<ref name="mac" /> led by a man identified only as "Peter".
[[John of Nikiû|John, Bishop of Nikiû]], a [[7th century]] author, described her death as follows, obviously drawing on Socrates but coming to rather different conclusions and portraying Hypatia as a [[witch]]:<ref>John, Bishop of Nikiu: The Life of Hypatia. Chronicle 84.87–103 ([http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hypatia-bio-john.html online version]).</ref>


She was stripped naked and dragged through the streets to the newly [[christianization|christianised]] [[Caesareum]] church and killed. Some reports suggest she was [[flaying|flayed]] with ''ostrakois'' (literally, "oyster shells", though also used to refer to roof tiles) and set ablaze while still alive, though other accounts suggest those actions happened after her death.
{{quote|And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through (her) Satanic wiles. And the governor of the city honored her exceedingly; for she had beguiled him through her magic. And he ceased attending church as had been his custom....A multitude of believers in God arose under the guidance of Peter the magistrate&nbsp;&ndash; now this Peter was a perfect believer in all respects in Jesus Christ&nbsp;&ndash; and they proceeded to seek for the pagan woman who had beguiled the people of the city and the prefect through her enchantments. And when they learnt the place where she was, they proceeded to her and found her seated on a (lofty) chair; and having made her descend they dragged her along till they brought her to the great church, named Caesarion. Now this was in the days of the fast. And they tore off her clothing and dragged her [till they brought her] through the streets of the city till she died. And they carried her to a place named Cinaron, and they burned her body with fire. And all the people surrounded the patriarch Cyril and named him 'the new Theophilus'; for he had destroyed the last remains of idolatry in the city.}}


<center>
[[Edward Gibbon]] in ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' states (using words that are repeated almost verbatim in Smith's ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]''):<ref>{{SmithDGRBM}}</ref>
{| cellspacing="5"
! [[Socrates Scholasticus]] (4<sup>th</sup>-century) !! !! [[John of Nikiû]] (7<sup>th</sup>-century) !! !! [[Edward Gibbon]] (18<sup>th</sup>-century)
|-
| valign="top" |
Yet even she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace, that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop. Some of them therefore, hurried away by a fierce and bigoted zeal, whose ringleader was a reader named Peter, waylaid her returning home, and dragging her from her carriage, they took her to the church called Caesareum, where they completely stripped her, and then murdered her by scraping her skin off with tiles and bits of shell. After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them.
| width="50px" | <!-- blank spacing cell -->
| valign="top" |
And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through Satanic wiles...A multitude of believers in God arose under the guidance of Peter the magistrate...and they proceeded to seek for the pagan woman who had beguiled the people of the city and the prefect through her enchantments. And when they learnt the place where she was, they proceeded to her and found her...they dragged her along till they brought her to the great church, named Caesarion. Now this was in the days of the fast. And they tore off her clothing and dragged her...through the streets of the city till she died. And they carried her to a place named Cinaron, and they burned her body with fire.
| width="50px" | <!-- blank spacing cell -->
| valign="top" |
A rumor was spread among the Christians, that the daughter of Theon was the only obstacle to the reconciliation of the prefect and the archbishop; and that obstacle was speedily removed. On a fatal day, in the holy season of Lent, Hypatia was torn from her chariot, stripped naked, dragged to the church, and inhumanly butchered by the hands of Peter the Reader and a troop of savage and merciless fanatics: her flesh was scraped from her bones with sharp oyster-shells and her quivering limbs were delivered to the flames.
|}</center>


==Legacy==
{{quote|Hypatia, the daughter of Theon the mathematician, was initiated in her father's studies; her learned comments have elucidated the geometry of Apollonius and Diophantus; and she publicly taught, both at Athens and Alexandria, the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. In the bloom of beauty, and in the maturity of wisdom, the modest maid refused her lovers and instructed her disciples; the persons most illustrious for their rank or merit were impatient to visit the female philosopher; and Cyril beheld, with jealous eye, the gorgeous train of horses and slaves who crowded the door of her academy. A rumor was spread among the Christians, that the daughter of Theon was the only obstacle to the reconciliation of the prefect and the archbishop; and that obstacle was speedily removed. On a fatal day, in the holy season of Lent, Hypatia was torn from her chariot, stripped naked, dragged to the church, and inhumanly butchered by the hands of Peter the reader and a troop of savage and merciless fanatics: her flesh was scraped from her bones with sharp oyster-shells, and her quivering limbs were delivered to the flames. The just progress of inquiry and punishment was stopped by seasonable gifts; but the murder of Hypatia has imprinted an indelible stain on the character and religion of Cyril of Alexandria.}}
[[Image:Hypatia (Cameron).jpg|thumb|The 1867 photograph ''Hypatia'' by [[Julia Margaret Cameron]].]]Shortly after her death, a [[forged]] letter attacking Christianity was published under her name.<ref>Synodicon, c. 216, in iv. tom. Concil. p. 484, as detailed in [[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]], vol. 8, chapter XLVII</ref> The pagan historian [[Damascius]], "anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death",<ref name="beauty" /> laid the blame squarely on the Christians and Bishop Cyril.


In the 14th century, historian [[Nicephorus Gregoras]] descibed [[Eudokia Makrembolitissa]] as a "second Hypatia".
The ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' states:<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04592b.htm St. Cyril of Alexandria]"
</ref>


In the 18<sup>th</sup>-century, the [[protestant]] scholar [[John Toland (philosopher)|John Toland]] used her death as the basis for an anti-Catholic tract entitled "''Hypatia: Or the history of a most beautiful, most vertuous, most learned, and every way accomplish’d lady; who was torn to pieces by the clergy of Alexandria, to gratify the pride, emulation, and cruelty of their archbishop, commonly but undeservedly stil’d St. Cyril''.<ref>Ogilvie, M. B. (1986). Women in science: Antiquity through the nineteenth century. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.</ref>
{{quote|In one of these riots, in 422, the prefect Callistus was killed, and in another was committed the murder of a female philosopher Hypatia, a highly-respected teacher of neo-Platonism, of advanced age and (it is said) many virtues. She was a friend of Orestes, and many believed that she prevented a reconciliation between the prefect and patriarch. A mob led by a lector, named Peter, dragged her to a church and tore her flesh with potshards till she died. This brought great disgrace, says Socrates, on the Church of Alexandria and on its bishop; but a lector at Alexandria was not a cleric (Scr., V, xxii), and Socrates does not suggest that Cyril himself was to blame. Damascius, indeed, accuses him, but he is a late authority and a hater of Christians.}}


{{wikisource|Hypatia}}
Soldan and Heppe<ref>Soldan, W.G. und Heppe, H., ''Geschichte der Hexenprozesse,'' Essen 1990. p.82.</ref> argue that Hypatia may have been the first famous "[[Witchcraft|witch]]" punished under Christian authority, as was noted by many church-critical authors who argued that Hypatia's death seems to match the punishment for witchcraft prescribed by the Emperor [[Constantius II]], to be "torn off their bones with iron hooks."
Eventually, her story began to be infused with Christian details, as her story was first substituted for the missing history of [[Saint Catherine of Alexandria]].<ref>{{Catholic|St. Catherine of Alexandria}}</ref><ref>Jameson, Anna. "[http://www.archive.org/details/sacredlegendary02jameiala Sacred and Legendary Art]", 1857. pp 84.</ref>


Later, [[Diodata Saluzzo Roero]]'s 1827 ''Ipazia ovvero delle Filosofie'' suggested that Cyril had actually converted Hypatia to Christianity, and that she had been killed by a "treacherous" priest.
However, while some of the Christian invective used to justify or excuse her [[murder]] betrays a vulgar reliance on fear of black magic, the essence of Christian objections to her influence will have lain in the turbulent confluence of Christian and Platonic assertions about the nature of God and the afterlife, which achieved its most famous expression fifteen years later in [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s ''[[The City of God]]''. The Patriarch, Cyril, a theologian who was posthumously canonised by the church, has been accused of complicity in the murder,<ref>Suda, Upsilon 166 6–8. Of note, this is a 10th century source.</ref> although conclusive evidence of this is lacking.


[[Charles Kingsley]]'s 1853 fictionalized novel ''Hypatia'', which portrayed the scholar as a "helpless, pretentious, and erotic heroine"<ref>Snyder, J. M. (1989). The woman and the lyre: Women writers in classical Greece and Rome. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.</ref>, recounted her conversion by a Jewish-Christian named Raphael Aben-Ezra after supposedly becoming disillusioned with Orestes.
Some authors have used Hypatia's death as a symbol of the "repression of reasoned [[paganism]] by irrational religion". Included among these was the astronomer and science popularizer [[Carl Sagan]], who provided a vivid account of her death and the burning of the [[Library of Alexandria]] in his popular science book ''[[Cosmos (book)|Cosmos]]''. Earlier writers sharing that view include [[Voltaire]] and historian [[Edward Gibbon]]. A serious study by the Polish historian [[Maria Dzielska]], ''Hypatia of Alexandria'' (1995), explains Hypatia's death as the result of a struggle between two Christian factions, the moderate Orestes&mdash;supported by Hypatia&mdash;and the more rigid Cyril. This point is alluded to by Smith, who states "''She was accused of too much familiarity with Orestes, prefect of Alexandria, and the charge spread among the clergy, who took up the notion that she interrupted the friendship of Orestes with their archbishop, Cyril.''"


In 1868, [[Julia Margaret Cameron]] produced a photographic depiction of the ancient scholar ''Hypatia.''<ref>Marsh, Jan, and Pamela Gerrish Nunn. ''Pre-Raphaelite Women Artists''. London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. (33, cat#38)</ref>
All the above works use ancient writers as their primary sources. Dzielska, alone, makes use of surviving personal letters written by students of the philosopher.


Despite her actual background, authors Soldan and Heppe wrote a text in 1990 arguing that Hypatia may have been the first famous "[[Witchcraft|witch]]" punished under Christian authority. <ref>Soldan, W.G. und Heppe, H., ''Geschichte der Hexenprozesse,'' Essen 1990. p.82.</ref>
[[Bertrand Russell]] - [[History of Western Philosophy]] - Page 342 (The quote within the quote is of Gibbon):


==Later references==
{{quote|St. Cyril, the advocate of unity, was a man of fanatical zeal. He used his position as patriarch to incite pogroms against the very large Jewish colony in Alexandria. His claim to fame is the lynching of Hypatia, a distinguished lady who, in an age of bigotry, adhered to the Neoplatonic philosophy and devoted her talents to mathematics. She was ‘torn from her chariot, stripped naked, dragged to the church, and inhumanly butchered by the hands of Peter the Reader and a troop of savage and merciless fanatics: her flesh was scraped from her bones with sharp oyster-shells and her quivering limbs were delivered to the flames. The just progress of inquiry and punishment was stopped by seasonable gifts.’ After this, Alexandria was no longer troubled by philosophers.}}
*Feminist artist [[Judy Chicago]] included Hypatia in the First Wing of her work ''[[The Dinner Party]]''.

*The ''[[Heirs of Alexandria series]]'' written by [[Mercedes Lackey]], [[Eric Flint]] and [[Dave Freer]], includes fictitious references to Hypatia's conversion to Christianity and subsequent correspondence with [[John Chrysostom]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]].
==Year of birth==
*Hypatia Cade, a precocious child and main character in the [[science fiction]] novel''The Ship Who Searched'' by [[Mercedes Lackey]] and [[Anne McCaffery]] is named after Hypatia of Alexandria.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}

*[[Umberto Eco]]'s novel ''[[Baudolino]]'' sees the protagonist meet a secluded society of [[satyr]]-like creatures who all take their name and philosophy from Hypatia.
''Conversion of Hypatia'', by [[Charles William Mitchell]] (1885), depicts Hypatia a moment before her death, in an alleged conversion to Christianity - although without historical basis. Her nudity is surprising, considering the nature of Christianity. Even in pagan Greek culture, men were often nude; women were not.
*[[Rinne Groff]]'s 2000 play ''The Five Hysterical Girls Theorem'' features a character named Hypatia who lives silently, in fear that she will suffer the fate of her namesake.

*''[[Remembering Hypatia]]'' is a fictional treatment of her life and death by author [[Brian Trent]].<ref>http://www.rememberinghypatia.com/</ref>
Hypatia could have been born anytime between AD 350 and 370. Traditionally a late date of birth has been ascribed to Hypatia, perhaps influenced by after-the-fact romanticized images of her, which depict her dying as a young and beautiful woman. Many authors presumed she died in her forties, and thus had been born around 370. However, Maria Dzielska has most recently argued that she was more likely born around 350 and thus would have been in her sixties when she was killed. And yet, Dzielska also makes a case for Hypatia's father, Theon, having been born in 335. This can be found on page 68 of her book ''Hypatia of Alexandria''. If this is so, and if Hypatia was born, as claimed, in 350, Theon could have been no more than fifteen years of age at her birth. As this is unlikely, a later date for Hypatia's birth seems obvious. A date as late as 370 would make Theon thirty five, a much more likely age for fatherhood. (Theon's birthdate seems to be an accepted fact, as evidenced by "Theon of Alexandria" by G. J. Toomer in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography 13:321-325.)
*Hypatia is a recurring character in [[Mark London Williams]]' juvenile fiction ''[[Danger Boy]]''

*Hypatia is the name of a 'shipmind' (ship computer), modeled after the historical Hypatia, in ''[[The Boy Who Would Live Forever]]'', a novel in [[Frederick Pohl]]'s [[Heechee]] series.
==References in Modern Culture==
*[http://blogs.adobe.com/typblography/2007/04/hypatia_sans.html Hypatia Sans Pro] is an Adobe typeface named after her.
Hypatia is believed to be the sole woman represented in [[Raphael]]'s 1506/1510 work ''[[The School of Athens]]''. She is standing at the lower left, dressed in white and looking directly at the viewer.
*One of approximately 300 lunar [[impact craters|craters]] named after Mathematicians is named ''[[List of craters on the Moon|Hypatia]]''.

*The [[Corto Maltese]] adventure Fable of Venice, by characteristic superposition of anachronistic elements, sees Hypatia preside over an intellectual salon in pre-Fascist Italy.
In [[1853 in literature|1853]], the [[novelist]] [[Charles Kingsley]] wrote the serialized novel ''Hypatia'', based loosely on the historical Hypatia.
In 1868 [[Julia Margaret Cameron]] created a photograph entitled ''Hypatia.'' It is held in a private collection, but can be viewed in Marsh, Jan, and Pamela Gerrish Nunn. Pre-Raphaelite Women Artists. London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. (33, cat#38)

In 1885, the artist [[Charles William Mitchell]] painted his only famous work, a stylized interpretation of Hypatia standing at a church altar, moments before her death.

In the late 1970s, Hypatia was depicted by feminist artist [[Judy Chicago]] in her work ''[[The Dinner Party]]''. Hypatia sits at the end of the First Wing.

Hypatia figures prominently in the first episode of ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage]]'' by [[Carl Sagan]] in scenes decpiting the [[Library of Alexandria]]. He reprises the story in the last episode. For many people who are not classical scholars, this is the first time they heard of Hypatia

In the ''[[Heirs of Alexandria series]],'' by [[Mercedes Lackey]], [[Eric Flint]] and [[Dave Freer]], Hypatia's conversion to Christianity and subsequent correspondence with [[John Chrysostom]] and St. Augustine altered history dramatically. Though she does not actually appear in the novels, set in the 1530s, her actions are directly responsible for the alternate fantasy premise of the series.

Hypatia Cade, a precocious child and main character in the [[science fiction]] novel''The Ship Who Searched'' by [[Mercedes Lackey]] and [[Anne McCaffery]] is named after Hypatia of Alexandria. (Cade's parents are archaeologists.)

In [[Umberto Eco]]'s novel ''[[Baudolino]]'' (Milan: Bompiani, 2000. English translation by William Weaver, New York: Harcourt 2002, ISBN 0-15-100690-3), the titular [[main character]] meets a member of a secluded society of [[satyr]]-like creatures who all take their name and philosophy from Hypatia.

[[Rinne Groff]]'s 2000 play ''The Five Hysterical Girls Theorem'' features the genius daughter of a prize-winning mathematician named Hypatia, who lives silently, in fear that she will one day suffer the fate of her namesake.

''[[Remembering Hypatia]]'' is a fictional treatment of her life and death by author Brian Trent.

In [[Mark London Williams]]' ''[[Danger Boy]]'' time travel series for young readers, Hypatia is a recurring character.

Hypatia is the name of a 'shipmind' (ship computer), modeled after the historical Hypatia, in ''[[The Boy Who Would Live Forever]]'', a novel in [[Frederick Pohl]]'s [[Heechee]] series.

Charlotte Kramer's ''Holy Murder: The Death of Hypatia of Alexandri'' is a novel published in 2007.

[http://blogs.adobe.com/typblography/2007/04/hypatia_sans.html Hypatia Sans Pro] is an Adobe typeface named after her. Debuting in limited release as a partially complete set (a retail edition with italics is projected) on April 16, 2007, the font is a geometric sans serif with humanist tendencies and capitals based on classical Roman proportions, according to its designer, Thomas Phinney.

Of the three hundred or so [[impact craters|craters]] on the [[Moon]] named after mathematicians, one is called [[List of craters on the Moon|Hypatia]].

The [[Corto Maltese]] adventure Fable of Venice, by characteristic superposition of anachronistic elements, sees Hypatia preside over an intellectual salon in pre-Fascist Italy.


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==Primary Sources==
* Charles, R. H. ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text'', 1916. Reprinted 2007. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9. [http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE4]


==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.polyamory.org/~howard/Hypatia Resources on Hypatia]: booklist, classroom activities
*[http://www.polyamory.org/~howard/Hypatia Resources on Hypatia]: booklist, classroom activities
*[http://lookleap.com/amazon.com/a191 Hypatia of Alexandria: Mathematician and Martyr] The first biography of Hypatia to integrate all aspects of her life. Includes serious discussion of her mathematics. By Michael Deakin, honorary research fellow and former senior lecturer in the School of Mathematical Sciences at Monash University, Australia
*[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ockham/or030897.htm Hypatia on ABC Radio] Transcript of an interview with Dr Michael Deakin about his research on Hypatia, broadcast on Australia's ABC Radio National. Sunday, 3 August, 1997
*[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ockham/or030897.htm Hypatia on ABC Radio] Transcript of an interview with Dr Michael Deakin about his research on Hypatia, broadcast on Australia's ABC Radio National. Sunday, 3 August, 1997
*[http://www.skyscript.co.uk/hypatia.html Extensive biography on Hypatia] This website takes the position that Hypatia was an astrologer
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/hypatia.html James Grout: ''Hypatia'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
*[http://www.hipatia.info "Hipatia"] &ndash; an organization promoting "the adoption of public policies combined with human and social behaviour that favour the free availability and sustainability of, and social access to, technology and knowledge"
*[http://www.inventions.org/culture/female/hypatia.html Her history and contributions to science]
*[http://www.cosmopolis.com/alexandria/hypatia.html English translations of some of the works referred to above]
*[http://www.hypatia.org Hypatia World]: website dedicated to the continuation of the work of Hypatia
*[http://www.hypatia-lovers.com/page21.html A counter-point to some of the assertions appearing in Maria Dzielska's ''Hypatia of Alexandria'']
*[http://www.skyscript.co.uk/hypatia.html The Important Life & Tragic Death of Hypatia]
*[http://www.skyscript.co.uk/hypatia.html The Important Life & Tragic Death of Hypatia]
*[http://hypatia-lovers.com/FreeImages.html A collection of free high-resolution Hypatia-related images.]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Hypatia}}
*[http://hypatia.fis.ucm.es/ Hypatia - Física, cultura y compromiso] "Hypatia - Physics, culture and sense of duty" Spanish university association that defends science, knowledge, public university and public policies. (In Spanish)
*[http://hypatia-lovers.com/FreeImages.html A collection of free high-resolution Hypatia-related images, including portraits of Hypatia, rare old illustrations from the German translation of Charles Kingsley's novel about this great woman, and old maps of ancient Alexandria, Egypt, and the Hellenistic World.]


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[[ar:هيباتيا]]
[[ar:هيباتيا]]

Revision as of 23:23, 30 November 2007

A 1908 portrait of Hypatia

Hypatia of Alexandria (Greek: Υπατία; born between 350 and 370 AD – 415 AD) was a Greek[1] or Egyptian [2] scholar, considered the first notable woman in mathematics, who also taught philosophy and astronomy[3]. She lived in Roman Egypt, and was killed by a Christian mob who blamed her for religious turmoil. Hailed as a "valiant defender of science against religion"[4], some suggest that her murder marked the end of the Hellenistic Age.[5]

A Neoplatonist philosopher, she followed the school characterized by the 3rd century Plotinus, and discouraged mysticism - while encouraging logical and mathematical studies.[6]

Life

Hypatia, as depicted in Raphael's The School of Athens.

Hypatia travelled to both Athens and Italy to study,[7] before becoming head of the Platonist school at Alexandria in approximately 400 AD,[8] and would teach Plato and Aristotle to anybody willing to listen,[9] including a number of Christians.[10] and foreigners<[6] who came to her classes.

Although Hypatia was herself a pagan, she was respected by a number of Christians, and later held up by Christian authors as a symbol of virtue.[6] The Byzantine Suda controversially[11] declared her "the wife of Isidore the Philosopher"[9] but agreed she had remained a virgin.[12]

Hypatia rebuffed a suitor by showing him her menstrual rags, claiming they demonstrated that there was "nothing beautiful" about carnal desires.[9]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Hypatia maintained correspondence with her former pupil Bishop of Ptolomais Synesius of Cyrene.[13] Together with the references by Damascius, these are the only writings with descriptions or information from her pupils that survive.[14]

The contemporary Christian historiographer Socrates Scholasticus described her in his Ecclesiastical History as follows:

There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not unfrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in going to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more.[6]

Works

An actress, possibly Mary Anderson, in the title role of the play "Hypatia" circa 1900.

Many of the works commonly attributed to Hypatia are believed to have been collaborative works with her father.

A partial list of specific accomplishments follows;

Her contributions to science are reputed to include the charting of celestial bodies[20] and the invention of the hydrometer,[21] used to determine the relative density of liquids.

Her pupil Synesius wrote a letter defending her as the inventor of the astrolabe, although earlier astrolabes predate Hypatia's model by at least a century - and her father had gained fame for his treatise on the subject.[18]

Death

An 1885 painting by Charles William Mitchell.

Believed to have been the the reason for the strained relationship between the Imperial Prefect Orestes and the Bishop Cyril, Hypatia attracted the ire of a Christian population eager to see the two reconciled.

One day in March 415CE[22], during the season of Lent, her chariot was waylaid on her route home by a Christian mob, possibly Nitrian monks[22] led by a man identified only as "Peter".

She was stripped naked and dragged through the streets to the newly christianised Caesareum church and killed. Some reports suggest she was flayed with ostrakois (literally, "oyster shells", though also used to refer to roof tiles) and set ablaze while still alive, though other accounts suggest those actions happened after her death.

Socrates Scholasticus (4th-century) John of Nikiû (7th-century) Edward Gibbon (18th-century)

Yet even she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace, that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop. Some of them therefore, hurried away by a fierce and bigoted zeal, whose ringleader was a reader named Peter, waylaid her returning home, and dragging her from her carriage, they took her to the church called Caesareum, where they completely stripped her, and then murdered her by scraping her skin off with tiles and bits of shell. After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them.

And in those days there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through Satanic wiles...A multitude of believers in God arose under the guidance of Peter the magistrate...and they proceeded to seek for the pagan woman who had beguiled the people of the city and the prefect through her enchantments. And when they learnt the place where she was, they proceeded to her and found her...they dragged her along till they brought her to the great church, named Caesarion. Now this was in the days of the fast. And they tore off her clothing and dragged her...through the streets of the city till she died. And they carried her to a place named Cinaron, and they burned her body with fire.

A rumor was spread among the Christians, that the daughter of Theon was the only obstacle to the reconciliation of the prefect and the archbishop; and that obstacle was speedily removed. On a fatal day, in the holy season of Lent, Hypatia was torn from her chariot, stripped naked, dragged to the church, and inhumanly butchered by the hands of Peter the Reader and a troop of savage and merciless fanatics: her flesh was scraped from her bones with sharp oyster-shells and her quivering limbs were delivered to the flames.

Legacy

File:Hypatia (Cameron).jpg
The 1867 photograph Hypatia by Julia Margaret Cameron.

Shortly after her death, a forged letter attacking Christianity was published under her name.[23] The pagan historian Damascius, "anxious to exploit the scandal of Hypatia's death",[19] laid the blame squarely on the Christians and Bishop Cyril.

In the 14th century, historian Nicephorus Gregoras descibed Eudokia Makrembolitissa as a "second Hypatia".

In the 18th-century, the protestant scholar John Toland used her death as the basis for an anti-Catholic tract entitled "Hypatia: Or the history of a most beautiful, most vertuous, most learned, and every way accomplish’d lady; who was torn to pieces by the clergy of Alexandria, to gratify the pride, emulation, and cruelty of their archbishop, commonly but undeservedly stil’d St. Cyril.[24]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Eventually, her story began to be infused with Christian details, as her story was first substituted for the missing history of Saint Catherine of Alexandria.[25][26]

Later, Diodata Saluzzo Roero's 1827 Ipazia ovvero delle Filosofie suggested that Cyril had actually converted Hypatia to Christianity, and that she had been killed by a "treacherous" priest.

Charles Kingsley's 1853 fictionalized novel Hypatia, which portrayed the scholar as a "helpless, pretentious, and erotic heroine"[27], recounted her conversion by a Jewish-Christian named Raphael Aben-Ezra after supposedly becoming disillusioned with Orestes.

In 1868, Julia Margaret Cameron produced a photographic depiction of the ancient scholar Hypatia.[28]

Despite her actual background, authors Soldan and Heppe wrote a text in 1990 arguing that Hypatia may have been the first famous "witch" punished under Christian authority. [29]

Later references

References

  1. ^ Mueller, I., 'Hypatia (370?-415)', in Women of Mathematics: A Biobibliographic Sourcebook , eds. L.S. Grinstein & P.J. Campbell, New York: Greenwood Press, p. 74-79, 1987.
  2. ^ Hypatia, Encyclopædia Britannica: "Egyptian Neoplatonist philosopher who was the first notable woman in mathematics."
  3. ^ http://www.skyscript.co.uk/hypatia.html
  4. ^ John William Draper, as quoted in the 1996 The Literary Legend of Hypatia by Maria Dzielska
  5. ^ Women Philosophers in the Ancient Greek World: Donning the Mantle, by Kathleen Wider. Hypatia © 1986 Indiana University Press p. 49-50
  6. ^ a b c d Socrates Scholasticus, Ecclesiastical History.
  7. ^ http://www.inventions.org/culture/female/hypatia.html
  8. ^ Historical Dictionary of Feminism, by Janet K. Boles, Diane Long Hoeveler. pp 166.
  9. ^ a b c Suda online, Upsilon 166
  10. ^ Bregman, J. (1982). "Synesius of Cyrene: Philosopher-bishop". Berkley: University of California Press.
  11. ^ Kingsley, Charles. "Hypatia", preface, quoting and agreeing with Gibbon
  12. ^ http://www.abc.net.au/science/slab/inspire/hypatia.htm
  13. ^ A. Fitzgerald, Letters of Synesius of Cyrene, London, 1926. (Letter 154 of Synesius of Cyrene to Hypatia).
  14. ^ Dzielska, Maria. Hypatia of Alexandria. Oxford Press, 1996.
  15. ^ http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Works/Hypatia.htm
  16. ^ http://cosmopolis.com/people/hypatia.html
  17. ^ Grout, James. Encyclopædia Romana
  18. ^ a b http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/phil/philo/phils/hypatia.html
  19. ^ a b Whitfield, Bryan J. The Beauty of Reasoning: A Reexamination of Hypatia of Alexandra
  20. ^ http://www.skyscript.co.uk/hypatia.html
  21. ^ Ethlie Ann Vare and Greg Ptacek, Mothers of Invention 1988, pp. 24-26.
  22. ^ a b O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Hypatia", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
  23. ^ Synodicon, c. 216, in iv. tom. Concil. p. 484, as detailed in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 8, chapter XLVII
  24. ^ Ogilvie, M. B. (1986). Women in science: Antiquity through the nineteenth century. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
  25. ^  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  26. ^ Jameson, Anna. "Sacred and Legendary Art", 1857. pp 84.
  27. ^ Snyder, J. M. (1989). The woman and the lyre: Women writers in classical Greece and Rome. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.
  28. ^ Marsh, Jan, and Pamela Gerrish Nunn. Pre-Raphaelite Women Artists. London: Thames & Hudson, 1998. (33, cat#38)
  29. ^ Soldan, W.G. und Heppe, H., Geschichte der Hexenprozesse, Essen 1990. p.82.
  30. ^ http://www.rememberinghypatia.com/

External links

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