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Komodo dragons' sense of hearing is not particularly acute, despite their visible earholes.<ref name="bbc">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/336feature1.shtml |title=BBC - Science & Nature - Articles - The Komodo conundrum |accessdate=2007-11-25 |format= |work=}}</ref> They are able to see as far away as 300 metres (985 feet), but because their retinas only contain cones, they are thought to have poor night vision. Komodo dragons are able to see in color but have poor visual discrimination of stationary objects.<ref name="nzpfactsheet">{{cite web |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Komododragon.cfm |title=Komodo Dragon Fact Sheet - National Zoo| FONZ |accessdate=2007-11-25 |format= |work=}}</ref> They use their tongue to detect taste and smell [[stimuli]], as with many other reptiles, with the [[Vomeronasal organ|vomeronasal]] sense using a [[Jacobson's organ]], a sense that aids navigation in the dark.<ref name="draconian"/> With the help of a favorable wind and their habit of swinging their head from side to side as they walk, they may be able to detect carrion from 4-9.5&nbsp;kilometres (2.5-6&nbsp;miles) away.<ref name="location"/><ref name="nzpfactsheet"/> Komodo dragons' nostrils are not of great use for smelling, as they do not have a [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]].<ref name="zipcode">[http://zipcodezoo.com/animals/v/varanus_komodoensis.asp Zipcodezoo.com - Varanus komodoensis] URL accessed [[February 1]], [[2007]].</ref> They have no taste buds on their tongues, only a few in the back of the throat.<ref name="draconian">[http://www.draconian.com/dragons/komodo-dragon-background.php Komodo Dragon - Background] URL accessed [[April 13]], [[2007]]</ref>
Komodo dragons' sense of hearing is not particularly acute, despite their visible earholes.<ref name="bbc">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/336feature1.shtml |title=BBC - Science & Nature - Articles - The Komodo conundrum |accessdate=2007-11-25 |format= |work=}}</ref> They are able to see as far away as 300 metres (985 feet), but because their retinas only contain cones, they are thought to have poor night vision. Komodo dragons are able to see in color but have poor visual discrimination of stationary objects.<ref name="nzpfactsheet">{{cite web |url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/ReptilesAmphibians/Facts/FactSheets/Komododragon.cfm |title=Komodo Dragon Fact Sheet - National Zoo| FONZ |accessdate=2007-11-25 |format= |work=}}</ref> They use their tongue to detect taste and smell [[stimuli]], as with many other reptiles, with the [[Vomeronasal organ|vomeronasal]] sense using a [[Jacobson's organ]], a sense that aids navigation in the dark.<ref name="draconian"/> With the help of a favorable wind and their habit of swinging their head from side to side as they walk, they may be able to detect carrion from 4-9.5&nbsp;kilometres (2.5-6&nbsp;miles) away.<ref name="location"/><ref name="nzpfactsheet"/> Komodo dragons' nostrils are not of great use for smelling, as they do not have a [[Thoracic diaphragm|diaphragm]].<ref name="zipcode">[http://zipcodezoo.com/animals/v/varanus_komodoensis.asp Zipcodezoo.com - Varanus komodoensis] URL accessed [[February 1]], [[2007]].</ref> They have no taste buds on their tongues, only a few in the back of the throat.<ref name="draconian">[http://www.draconian.com/dragons/komodo-dragon-background.php Komodo Dragon - Background] URL accessed [[April 13]], [[2007]]</ref>


Their scales, some reinforced with bone, have sensory plaques connected to nerves that facilitate their sense of touch. The scales around the ears, lips, chin, and soles of the feet may have ten tongues and two penises.<ref name="location"/>
Their scales, some reinforced with bone, have sensory plaques connected to nerves that facilitate their sense of touch. The scales around the ears, lips, chin, and soles of the feet may have three or more sensory plaques.<ref name="location"/>


Formerly, Komodo dragons were thought to be deaf when a study reported no agitation in wild Komodo Dragons during whispers, raised voices, and shouts. This was disputed when [[ZSL London Zoo|London Zoological Garden]] employee Joan Proctor trained a captive monitor to come out to feed at the sound of her voice, even when she could not be seen.<ref name="liz"/>
Formerly, Komodo dragons were thought to be deaf when a study reported no agitation in wild Komodo Dragons during whispers, raised voices, and shouts. This was disputed when [[ZSL London Zoo|London Zoological Garden]] employee Joan Proctor trained a captive monitor to come out to feed at the sound of her voice, even when she could not be seen.<ref name="liz"/>

Revision as of 08:40, 2 December 2007

Komodo dragon
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Reptilia
Order:
Squamata
Suborder:
Autarchoglossa
Family:
Varanidae
Genus:
Varanus
Species:
V. komodoensis
Binomial name
Varanus komodoensis
Komodo dragon distribution

The Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis[1]), also known as the Komodo Monitor,[1] Komodo Island Monitor,[1] Ora (to the natives of Komodo[2]), or simply Komodo, is a species of lizard which inhabits the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Gili Motang, and Gili Dasami in central Indonesia.[3]

A member of the monitor lizard family Varanidae, and the clade Toxicofera, the Komodo is the largest living species of lizard, growing to an average length of 2-3 metres (approximately 6.5-10 feet). This great length is attributed to island gigantism, as there are no carnivorous mammals to fill the niche in the islands that they live on, and the Komodo dragon's low metabolic rate.[4][5] As a result of their great size, these lizards are apex predators, dominating the ecosystems in which they live.[6]

Komodo dragons were only discovered by Western scientists in 1910. Their large size and fearsome reputation makes them popular zoo exhibits. In the wild their range has contracted due to human activities and they are listed as vulnerable by the IUCN. They are protected under Indonesian law and a national park, Komodo National Park, was founded in order to protect them.

Anatomy and morphology

Closeup of a Komodo Dragon's skin.

In the wild, adult Komodos usually weigh around 70 kilograms (154 pounds).[7] Captive specimens often weigh more. The largest verified wild specimen was 3.13 metres (10 feet 3 inches) long and weighed 166 kilograms (365 pounds), including undigested food.[8] Komodo dragons have a tail that is as long as the body, as well as about 60 frequently-replaced serrated teeth that may be 2.5 centimetres (1 inch) in length.[9] Their saliva will frequently be blood-tinged, because their teeth are almost completely covered by gingival tissue and this tissue is naturally lacerated during feeding.[10] This creates an ideal culture for the virulent bacteria that live in their mouths.[11] It also has a long, yellow, deeply-forked tongue.[8]

Physiology

A basking Komodo Dragon photographed at Disney's Animal Kingdom.

Komodo dragons' sense of hearing is not particularly acute, despite their visible earholes.[12] They are able to see as far away as 300 metres (985 feet), but because their retinas only contain cones, they are thought to have poor night vision. Komodo dragons are able to see in color but have poor visual discrimination of stationary objects.[13] They use their tongue to detect taste and smell stimuli, as with many other reptiles, with the vomeronasal sense using a Jacobson's organ, a sense that aids navigation in the dark.[14] With the help of a favorable wind and their habit of swinging their head from side to side as they walk, they may be able to detect carrion from 4-9.5 kilometres (2.5-6 miles) away.[10][13] Komodo dragons' nostrils are not of great use for smelling, as they do not have a diaphragm.[15] They have no taste buds on their tongues, only a few in the back of the throat.[14]

Their scales, some reinforced with bone, have sensory plaques connected to nerves that facilitate their sense of touch. The scales around the ears, lips, chin, and soles of the feet may have three or more sensory plaques.[10]

Formerly, Komodo dragons were thought to be deaf when a study reported no agitation in wild Komodo Dragons during whispers, raised voices, and shouts. This was disputed when London Zoological Garden employee Joan Proctor trained a captive monitor to come out to feed at the sound of her voice, even when she could not be seen.[16]

Ecology, behavior and life history

Close-up of a Komodo's foot and tail.

Komodo dragons are found exclusively in Indonesia, on the islands of Komodo, Flores and Rinca and on several islands of the Lesser Sunda archipelago.[17] They prefer hot and dry places, and typically live in dry open grassland, savanna and tropical forest at low elevations. As poikilotherms, they are most active in the day, although they do exhibit some nocturnal activity. Komodo dragons are largely solitary, coming together only to breed and eat. They are capable of running rapidly in brief sprints (up to 20 kilometres per hour [12.4 miles per hour]), are excellent swimmers (may dive up to 4.5 metres [15 feet]),[18] and climb trees proficiently through use of their strong claws.[7] To catch prey that is out of reach, they may stand on their hind legs and use their tail as a support.[16] As Komodo dragons mature, their claws are used primarily as weapons, as their great mass makes climbing impractical.

For shelter, Komodo dragons dig holes that can measure from 1-3 metres (3-10 ft) wide with their powerful forelimbs and claws.[19] Because of their large size and habit of sleeping in these burrows, Komodo dragons are able to conserve body heat throughout the night and minimize their basking period the morning after.[20] Komodo dragons typically hunt in the afternoon, but stay in the shade during the hottest part of the day.[21]

Feeding ecology

Komodo Dragons on Rinca

Komodo dragons are carnivorous. Although they eat mostly carrion,[4] studies show that they also hunt live prey with a stealthy approach followed by a sudden short charge. When suitable prey arrives near a dragon's ambush site, it will suddenly charge at the animal and go for the underside or the throat.[10] The lizard is able to locate its prey using its keen sense of smell, which can locate a dead or dying animal from a range of up to 9.5 kilometers (6 miles).[10]

Young Komodo Dragon photographed on Rinca feeding on a water buffalo carcass

Komodo dragons eat by tearing large chunks of flesh and swallowing them whole while holding the carcass down with their forelegs. The copious amounts of red saliva that the Komodo dragons produce helps to lubricate the food, but swallowing is still a long process (15-20 minutes to swallow a goat). To prevent itself from suffocating while swallowing, it breathes using a small tube under the tongue that connects to the lungs.[10] The Komodo dragon's loosely articulated jaws, flexible skull, and expandable stomach allows it to eat up to 80 percent of its body weight in one meal.[22][6] After eating, it drags itself to a sunny spot to speed digestion, as the food could rot and poison the dragon if left undigested for too long. Because of their slow metabolism, large dragons can survive on as little as 12 meals a year. After digestion, the Komodo dragon regurgitates a mass of horns, hair, and teeth known as the gastric pellet, which is covered in malodorous mucus. After regurgitating the gastric pellet, it rubs its face in the dirt or on bushes to get rid of the mucus, suggesting that it, like humans, does not relish the scent of its own mucus.[10]

The largest animals generally eat first, while the smaller ones follow a hierarchy. The largest male asserts his dominance and the smaller males show their submission by use of body language and rumbling hisses. Dragons of equal size may resort to "wrestling." Losers usually retreat, though have been known to have been killed and eaten by victors.[10]

The dragon's diet is wide-ranging, and includes invertebrates, other reptiles (including smaller Komodo Dragons), birds, bird eggs, small mammals, monkeys, wild boars, goats, deer, horses, and water buffalos. Young Komodos will eat insects, eggs, geckoes, and small mammals.[4][22] Occasionally they have been known to consume humans and human corpses, digging up bodies from shallow graves to do so.[16] It is thought that the Komodo dragon evolved to feed on the extinct dwarf elephant Stegodon that once lived on Flores.[23]

The Komodo dragon has been observed intentionally startling a pregnant deer in the hopes of a miscarriage whose remains they can eat, a technique that has also been observed in large African predators.[23]

Because the Komodo dragon does not have a diaphragm, it cannot suck water when drinking, nor can it lap water with its tongue. Instead, it drinks by taking a mouthful of water, lifting its head, and letting the water run down its throat.[10]

Venom and bacteria

Komodo dragons have recently been discovered to produce a venom. In late 2005, University of Melbourne researchers discovered that Perenties (Varanus giganteus), other monitors, Gila Monsters (Heloderma suspectum), Iguanians and Beaded Lizards (Heloderma horridum) may be somewhat venomous. Previously, it had been thought that bites inflicted by these lizards were simply prone to infection because of bacteria in the lizards' mouths, but these researchers have shown that the immediate effects are caused by mild envenomation. Bites on human digits by a Lace Monitor (Varanus varius), a Komodo dragon and a Spotted Tree Monitor (V. scalaris) have been observed and all produced similar results in humans: rapid swelling within minutes, localised disruption of blood clotting, shooting pain up to to the elbow, with some symptoms lasting for several hours.[24]

In addition to the venom, dragons also possess virulent bacteria in their saliva, of which more than 28 Gram-negative and 29 Gram-positive strains have been isolated.[25] These bacteria cause septicemia in their victim; if an initial bite does not kill the prey animal and it escapes, it will commonly succumb within a week to the resulting infection. The deadliest bacteria in Komodo dragon saliva appears to be a very deadly strain of Pasteurella multocida, from studies performed with lab mice.[26] Because the Komodo dragon appears immune to its own microbes, much research has been done searching for the antibacterial molecule in the hopes of human medicinal use.[27]

Life history

Sleeping Komodo Dragon. Notice the large, curved claws used in fighting and eating.

Mating occurs between May and August, with the eggs laid in September.[18] During this period, males fight over females and territory by grappling with one another upon their hind legs with the loser eventually being pinned to the ground. These males may vomit or defecate when preparing for the fight.[16] The winner of the fight will then flick his long tongue at the female to gain information about her receptivity.[6] Females are antagonistic and resist with their claws and teeth during the early phases of courtship. Therefore, the male must fully restrain the female during coitus to avoid being hurt. Other courtship displays include males rubbing their chins on the female, hard scratches to the back, and licking.[28] Copulation occurs when the male inserts one of his hemipenes into the female's cloaca.[13] Komodo Dragons may be monogamous and form "pair bonds," a rare behavior for lizards.[16][22]

The female will lay her eggs in the burrows in the ground, cut into the side of a hill or in the abandoned nesting mounds of the Orange-footed Scrubfowl (a moundbuilder or megapode), with a preference for the abandoned mounds.[29] Clutches contain an average of 20 eggs which have an incubation period of 7-8 months.[16] The female lies on the eggs to incubate and protect them until they hatch around April, at the end of the rainy season when insects are plentiful.[18]

In this image, the long tail and claws are fully visible.

Hatching is an exhausting effort for the pups, who break out of their eggshells with an egg tooth that falls off after the job is done. After cutting out the hatchlings may lie in their eggshells for hours before starting to dig out of the nest. They are born quite defenseless, and many are eaten by predators.[10]

Young Komodo dragons spend much of their first few years in trees, where they are relatively safe from predators, including cannibalistic adults, who make juvenile dragons 10 percent of their diet.[30][16] When the young must approach a kill, they roll around in fecal matter and rest in the intestines of eviscerated animals to deter these hungry adults.[16][22] Dragons take about three to five years to mature, and may live for up to 50 years.[19]

There are recorded examples of parthenogenesis (reproduction without the contribution of a male), a phenomenon also known to occur in some other reptile species, such as Whiptail Lizards.[7]

Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenetic baby Komodo Dragon, Chester Zoo, England

Sungai, a Komodo dragon at London Zoo, laid a clutch of eggs in early 2006 after being separated from males for more than two years. Scientists initially assumed that she had been able to store sperm from her earlier encounter with a male, an adaptation known as superfecundation. After being told of the condition of Flora's eggs, testing showed that Sungai's eggs were also produced without outside fertilization.[31]

On December 20, 2006, it was reported that Flora, a captive Komodo dragon living in the Chester Zoo in England, is the second known Komodo Dragon to have laid unfertilized eggs: she laid 11 eggs, and 7 of them hatched, all of them male.[32] Scientists at Liverpool University in northern England performed genetic tests on three eggs that collapsed after being moved to an incubator, and verified that Flora had had no physical contact with a male Dragon.

Komodo dragons have the ZW chromosomal sex-determination system, not the mammalian XY system. That her progeny were male, shows that Flora's unfertilized eggs were haploid and doubled their chromosomes later to become diploid, and that she did not lay diploid eggs as would have happened if one of the meiosis reduction-divisions in her ovaries had failed, and that the egg was not fertilized by a polar body. When a female Komodo dragon (with ZW sex chromosomes) reproduces in this manner, she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes, including only one of her two sex chromosomes. This single set of chromosomes is duplicated in the egg, which develops parthenogenetically. Eggs receiving a Z chromosome become ZZ (male); those receiving a W chromosome become WW and fail to develop.[33]

It has been hypothesized that this reproductive adaptation allows a single female to enter an isolated ecological niche (such as an island) and by parthenogenesis produce male offspring, thereby establishing a sexually reproducing population (via reproduction with her offspring that can result in both male and female young).[33] Despite the advantages of such an adaptation, zoos are cautioned that parthenogenesis may be detrimental to genetic diversity.[34]

Dragons and humans

File:Dscn0057.jpg
Komodo dragon's coin, issued by Indonesia

Discovery

Dragons were first documented by Europeans in 1910. Widespread notoriety came after 1912, in which Peter Ouwens, the director of the Zoological Museum at Bogor, Java, published a paper on the topic after receiving a photo and a skin.[30][16] Later, the Komodo Dragon was the driving factor for an expedition to Komodo Island by W. Douglas Burden in 1926. After returning with 12 preserved specimens and 2 live Dragons, this expedition provided the inspiration for the 1933 movie King Kong.[35] It was also Burden who coined the common name "Komodo Dragon."[21] Three of his specimens were stuffed and are still on display in the American Museum of Natural History.[36]

Studies

The Dutch, realizing the limited number of individuals in the wild, outlawed sport hunting and heavily limited the number of individuals taken for scientific study. Collecting expeditions ground to a halt with the occurrence of World War II, not resuming until the 1950s and 1960s, when studies examined the Komodo dragon's feeding behavior, reproduction, and body temperature. At around this time, an expedition was planned in which a long-term study of the Komodo dragon would be undertaken. This task was given to the Auffenberg family, who stayed in Komodo Island for 11 months, where Walter Auffenburg and his assistant Putra Sastrawan captured and tagged more than 50 Komodo Dragons.[27] The research from the Auffenburg expedition would prove to be enormously influential in raising Komodo dragons in captivity.[3] Research after the Auffenburg family has shed more light on the nature of the Komodo dragon, with biologists such as Claudio Ciofi continuing to study the creatures.[37]

Conservation

Two Komodo Dragons photographed on Komodo Island

The Komodo dragon is a vulnerable species and is found on the IUCN Red List.[38] There are approximately 4,000-5,000 living Komodo dragons in the wild. Their populations are restricted to the islands of Rinca (1,300) and Gili Motang (100) and several of the Lesser Sunda Islands, including Komodo (1,700) and Flores (perhaps 2,000). However, there are concerns that there may presently be only 350 breeding females.[2] To address these concerns, the Komodo National Park was founded in 1980 to protect Komodo Dragon populations on islands including Komodo, Rinca, and Padar.[39] Later, the Wae Wuul and Wolo Tado Reserves were opened on Flores to aid with Komodo dragon conservation.[37] However, there is evidence that Komodo Dragons are becoming accustomed to human presence, as they are often fed animal carcasses at several feeding stations by tourists.[4]

Volcanic activity, earthquakes, loss of habitat, fire (the population at Padar was almost destroyed because of a wildfire, and has since mysterious disappeared[37]),[10] loss of prey, tourism, and poaching have all contributed to the vulnerable status of the Komodo Dragon. Under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), commercial trade of skins or specimens is illegal.[15]

Although attacks are very rare, Komodo Dragons have been known to kill humans. On June 4, 2007, a Komodo dragon attacked an eight year old boy on Komodo Island. He later died of massive bleeding from his wounds. It was the first recorded deadly attack in 33 years.[40]

In captivity

Komodo Dragons at Toronto Zoo

Komodo dragons have long been great zoo attractions, where their size and reputation make them popular exhibits. They are, however, rare in zoos because they are susceptible to infection and parasitic disease, and do not readily reproduce.[2]

The first Komodo dragon was exhibited in 1934 at the Smithsonian National Zoological Park, but it lived for only two years. More attempts to exhibit Komodo dragons were made, but the lifespan of these creatures was very short, averaging 5 years in the National Zoological Park. Studies done by Walter Auffenberg, which were documented in his book The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor, eventually allowed for more successful managing and reproducing of the dragons in captivity.[3]

It has been observed in captive dragons that many individuals display relatively tame behavior within a short period of time in captivity. Many occurrences are reported where keepers have brought the animals out of their enclosures to interact with zoo visitors, including young children, to no harmful effect.[41][42] Dragons are also capable of recognizing individual humans. Ruston Hartdegen of the Dallas Zoo reported that their monitors reacted differently when presented with their regular keeper, a more or less familiar keeper, or a completely unfamiliar keeper.[43]

Research with captive dragons has also provided evidence that Komodo dragons engage in play. One study concerned a dragon who would push a shovel left by its keeper, apparently attracted to the sound of it scraping across the rocky surface. A young female dragon at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. would grab and shake various objects including statues, beverage cans, plastic rings and blankets. She would also insert her head into boxes, shoes, and other objects. She did not confuse these objects with food, as she would only swallow them if they were covered in rat blood. This social play has led to a striking comparison with mammalian play.[6]

Another documentation of play in Komodo dragons comes from the University of Tennessee, where a young Komodo Dragon named "Kraken" interacted with plastic rings, a shoe, a bucket, and a tin can by nudging them with her snout, swiping at them, and carrying them around in her mouth. She treated all of them differently than her food, leading researcher Gordon Burghardt to conclude that they disprove the view of object play being "food-motivated predatory behavior."[44]

Even seemingly docile dragons may become aggressive unpredictably, especially when the animal's territory is invaded by someone unfamiliar. In June 2001, a dragon seriously injured Phil Bronstein -- executive editor of the San Francisco Chronicle and then-husband of film actress Sharon Stone -- when he entered its enclosure at the Los Angeles Zoo after being invited in by the dragon's keeper. Bronstein was bitten on his bare foot, as the keeper had told him to take off his white shoes, which could have potentially excited the dragon.[45][46] Although he escaped, he had several tendons in his foot reattached surgically.[47]

See also

References

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  2. ^ a b c Endangered! Ora URL accessed January 15, 2007.
  3. ^ a b c Trooper Walsh; Murphy, James Jerome; Claudio Ciofi; Colomba De LA Panouse. Komodo Dragons: Biology and Conservation (Zoo and Aquarium Biology and Conservation Series). Washington, D.C: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1-58834-073-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ a b c d Chris Mattison, (1989 & 1992). Lizards of the World (Of the World). New York: Facts on File. pp. pp. 16, 57, 99, 175. ISBN 0-8160-5716-8. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
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  19. ^ a b consultant editors, Harold G. Cogger & Richard G. Zweifel; illustrations by David Kirshner (1998). Encyclopedia of reptiles & amphibians. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 132, 157–8. ISBN 0-12-178560-2. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Eric R. Pianka and Laurie J. Vitt; with a foreword by Harry W. Greene (2003). Lizards: windows to the evolution of diversity. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 244. ISBN 0-520-23401-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  23. ^ a b Diamond, J (1987) "Did Komodo dragons evolve to eat pygmy elephants?" Nature 326(6116): 832-832
  24. ^ Fry, Brian G., et al. (2006). "Early evolution of the venom system in lizards and snakes." Nature. Letters. Vol. 439/2 February 2006, pp. 584-588. Pdf file available for download at: [1]
  25. ^ Montgomery JM, Gillespie D, Sastrawan P, Fredeking TM, Stewart GL (2002) "Aerobic salivary bacteria in wild and captive Komodo dragons" Journal of Wildlife Diseases 38 (3): 545-551
  26. ^ Feldman, Ruth Tenzer. "Dragon drool!(Animal Angles)(komodo dragons)(Brief article)." Odyssey 16.2 (Feb 2007): 49(1). Student Resource Center - Gold. Gale. 23 Oct. 2007 <http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS>.
  27. ^ a b "Chasing the Magic Dragon - National Wildlife Magazine". Retrieved 2007-11-06.
  28. ^ Komodo Dragon: Varanus komodoensis 1998 URL accessed January 24, 2007.
  29. ^ Jessop TS, Sumner J, Rudiharto H, Purwandana D, Imansyah MJ, Phillips JA (2004) "Distribution, use and selection of nest type by Komodo Dragons" Biological Conservation 117 (5): 463-470
  30. ^ a b Facts and Data on the Komodo Dragon URL accessed January 5, 2006.
  31. ^ "Wise men testify to Dragon's virgin birth - Times Online". Retrieved 2007-11-26.
  32. ^ Notice by her cage in Chester Zoo in England
  33. ^ a b Virgin births for giant lizards
  34. ^ Watts PC, Buley KR, Sanderson S, Boardman W, Ciofi C, Gibson R (2006). "Parthenogenesis in Komodo Dragons". Nature. 444 (7122): 1021–2. doi:10.1038/4441021a. PMID 17183308.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ The Virtual Exploration Society: the Burden Expedition to Komodo Island URL accessed March 18, 2007.
  36. ^ American Museum of Natural History: Komodo Dragons. Retrieved 7 June 2007.
  37. ^ a b c "Trapping Komodo Dragons for Conservation". Retrieved 2007-11-08.
  38. ^ Template:IUCN2006 Listed as Vulnerable (VU B1+2cde v2.3) URL accessed December 21, 2006
  39. ^ The official website of Komodo National Park URL accessed February 2, 2007.
  40. ^ Press, Associated. "Komodo Dragon Kills Boy, 8, in Indonesia." MSNBC. 4 June 2007. [2]. retrieved on 7 June 2007.
  41. ^ Procter, J. B. 1928. On a living Komodo Dragon Varanus komodensis Ouwens, exhibited at the Scientific Meeting, October 23rd, 1928. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1928:1017-1019.
  42. ^ Lederer, G. 1931. Erkennen wechselwarme Tiere ihren Pfleger? Wochenschr. Aquar.-Terrarienkunde 28: 636-638.
  43. ^ Murphy, J., and Walsh, T., 2006. Dragons and Humans. Herpetological Review, 37: 269-275.
  44. ^ "Such jokers, those Komodo dragons. (Reptiles)." Science News 162.5 (August 3, 2002): 78(1). Student Resource Center - Gold. Gale. 8 Oct. 2007 <http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS>.
  45. ^ Transcript: Sharon Stone vs. the Komodo Dragon
  46. ^ Phillip T. Robinson (2004). Life at the zoo: behind the scenes with the animal doctors. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 79. ISBN 0-231-13248-4.
  47. ^ "Tale of the Dragon. (World News)." National Geographic World (Nov 2001): 7(1). Student Resource Center - Gold. Gale. 23 Oct. 2007 <http://find.galegroup.com/ips/start.do?prodId=IPS>.

Further reading

  • Auffenberg, Walter (1981). The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-0621-X.
  • King, Dennis & Green, Brian. 1999. Goannas: The Biology of Varanid Lizards. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 0-86840-456-X
  • Richard L. Lutz, Judy Marie Lutz,. Komodo, the Living Dragon: The Living Dragon. Salem, Or: DiMI Press. ISBN 0-931625-27-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • W. Douglas Burden,. Dragon Lizards of Komodo: An Expedition to the Lost World of the Dutch East Indies. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-6579-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
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