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| volume = 71
| volume = 71
| pages = 73- 75
| pages = 73- 75
| publisher =Cooper Ornithological Society
| date =1968
| date =1968
| url =http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v071n01/p0073-p0075.pdf
| url =http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v071n01/p0073-p0075.pdf
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| title =Observations on the Breeding Behavior of the Andean Condor (''Vultur Gryphus'')
| title =Observations on the Breeding Behavior of the Andean Condor (''Vultur Gryphus'')
| journal =[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]
| journal =[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]
| publisher =Cooper Ornithological Society
| volume = 75
| volume = 75
| pages = 60-68
| pages = 60-68
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| isbn =0309047757 }}</ref>
| isbn =0309047757 }}</ref>


The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents. They are able to fly after six months,<ref name= "Hilty"/> but continue to roost and hunt with their parents until age two, when they are displaced by a new clutch.<ref>See e.g. Cisneros-Heredia (2006) for a record of a juvenile accompanying an adult male in July, too early to have been of that year's [[cohort (ecology)|cohort]].</ref> There is a well developed social structure within large groups of condors, with competition to determine a 'pecking order' by body language, competitive play behavior, and a wide variety of [[Bird vocalization|vocalizations]].
The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents. They are able to fly after six months,<ref name= "Hilty"/> but continue to roost and hunt with their parents until age two, when they are displaced by a new clutch.<ref>See e.g. Cisneros-Heredia (2006) for a record of a juvenile accompanying an adult male in July, too early to have been of that year's [[cohort (ecology)|cohort]].</ref> There is a well developed social structure within large groups of condors, with competition to determine a 'pecking order' by body language, competitive play behavior, and [[Bird vocalization|vocalizations]].<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Donazard
| first = José A
| coauthors = Juan E. Feijoo
| title = Social structure of Andean Condor roosts: Influence of sex, age, and season
| journal =[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]
| volume = 104
| issue = 1
| pages = 832-837
| publisher =Cooper Ornithological Society
| date = 2002
| url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14022914
| accessdate =2008-01-10 }}</ref>


==Relationship with Humans==
==Relationship with Humans==

Revision as of 01:06, 13 January 2008

Andean Condor
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Incertae sedis (disputed)
Family:
Cathartidae
Genus:
Vultur

Lesson, 1842
Species:
V. gryphus
Binomial name
Vultur gryphus
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Approximate range/distribution map of the Andean Condor. Yellow indicates presence.
Synonyms

The Andean Condor, Vultur gryphus, is a species of South American bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae and is the only member of the genus Vultur. It is found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America and is the largest flying land bird in the Western Hemisphere.

The Andean Condor is a large black vulture with a ruff of white feathers surrounding the base of the neck and, especially in the male, large white patches on the wings. The head and neck are nearly featherless, and are a dull red colour, which may change flush, causing colour change, depending on the bird's emotional state. In the male, there is a wattle on the neck and a large, dark red, comb or caruncle on the crown of the head. Unlike most birds of prey, the male is larger than the female. The condor is primarily a scavenger, feeding on carrion. It prefers large carcasses, such as those of deer or cattle. It reaches sexual maturity at five or six years old and roosts at elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 meters (10,000-16,000 ft), generally on inaccessible rock ledges. One or two eggs are usually laid.

The Andean Condor is a national symbol of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and plays an important role in the folklore and mythology of the South American Andean regions.The Andean Condor is considered near threatened by the IUCN.[2] It is threatened by habitat loss and by secondary poisoning from carcasses killed by hunters. Captive-breeding programs have been instituted in several countries.

Taxonomy

The Andean Condor was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae as Vultur gryphus.[3] Sometimes the Andean Condor is called the Argentinean Condor, Bolivian Condor, Chilean Condor, Colombian Condor, Ecuadorian Condor, or Peruvian Condor after one of the nations to which it is native. The generic term Vultur is directly taken from the Latin vultur or voltur "vulture", a word originally used in the works of Livy and Virgil.[4] Its specific epithet is derived from the Greek word gryp(h)os/γρυπος "hook-nosed".[5]

The exact taxonomic placement of the Andean Condor and the remaining six species of New World Vultures remains unclear.[6] Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles, the New World and Old World Vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world, and are not closely related. Just how different the two are is currently under debate, with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World vultures are more closely related to storks.[7] More recent authorities maintain their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World Vultures[8] or place them in their own order, Cathartiformes.[9] The South American Classification Committee has removed the New World Vultures from Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis, but notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is possible.[6]

The Andean Condor is the only accepted living or extinct species of its genus Vultur. Unlike the California Condor, which is known from extensive fossil remains and some additional ones of congeners, the fossil record of the Andean Condor recovered to date is scant. Some prehistoric genera of New World vultures seem to be closely related to Vultur; the Argentine Early to Middle Pliocene Dryornis pampeanus may actually belong to this genus[citation needed]. Presumed Plio-/Pleistocene species of South American condors were later recognized to be not different from the present species, although one known only from a few rather small bones found in a Pliocene deposit of Tarija Department, Bolivia, may have been a smaller palaeosubspecies, V. gryphus patruus.[10]

Description

Captive male

Although it is about 5 cm shorter (beak to tail) on average than the California Condor, the Andean Condor is undoubtedly larger in wingspan: 274-310 cm (108-12  in or 9-10 ft).[11] It is also heavier: up to 11-15 kg (24-33 lb) for males and 7.5-11 kg (16-24 lb) for females.[12] Overall length can range from 117 to 135 cm (46 to 53 in).[13] Measurements are usually taken from specimens reared in captivity.[14]

The adult plumage is of a uniform black, with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly surrounding the base of the neck and, especially in the male, large patches or bands of white on the wings which do not appear until the completion of the first moulting.[13] As an adaptation for hygiene, the head and neck have few feathers, exposing the skin to the sterilizing effects of dehydration and ultraviolet light at high altitudes,[12] and are meticulously kept clean by the bird.[15] The head and neck are red to blackish-red. The head is much flattened above. In the male, the head is crowned with a dark red caruncle or comb, while the skin of the neck in the male lies in folds, forming a wattle.[13] The skin of the head and neck is capable of flushing noticeably in response to emotional state, which serves to communicate between individuals. Juveniles have greyish-brown general colouration, blackish head and neck skin, and a brown ruff.[16]

The middle toe is greatly elongated, and the hind one is only slightly developed, while the talons of all the toes are comparatively straight and blunt. The feet are thus more adapted to walking and of little use as weapons or organs of prehension as in birds of prey and Old World vultures. The eyes of the males are brown, while those of the females are deep red.[17] The eyes lack eyelashes.[18] The female, contrary to the usual rule among birds of prey, is smaller than the male.

Distribution and habitat

The Andean Condor is found in South America in the Andes. In the north, its range begins in Venezuela and Colombia, where it is extremely rare,[2] then continues south along the Andes in Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, through Bolivia and western Argentina to the Tierra del Fuego.[16] Its habitat is mainly composed of open grasslands and alpine areas up to 5,000 meters (16,000 ft) in elevation. It prefers relatively open, non-forested areas which allow it to spot carrion from the air, such as the páramo or rocky, mountainous areas in general.[19] It occasionally ranges to lowlands in eastern Bolivia and southwestern Brazil,[7] and descends to lowland desert areas in Chile and Peru, and is found in southern-beech forests in Patagonia.[2]

Ecology and behaviour

An Andean condor soars over southern Peru's Colca Canyon.

On wing the movements of the condor, as it wheels in majestic circles, are remarkably graceful.[20] It soars with wings held horizontally and the primary feathers bent upwards at the tips.[13] The lack of a large sternum to anchor correspondingly large flight muscles identifies them physiologically as primarily soarers. The birds flap their wings on rising from the ground, but after attaining a moderate elevation they seem to sail on the air.[21] Charles Darwin commented on having watched them for half an hour without once observing a flap of their wings. They prefer to roost on high places from where they can launch without major wing-flapping effort. Often, these birds are seen soaring near rock cliffs, using the heat thermals to aid them in rising in the air.[22]

The Andean Condor, like other New World Vultures, has the unusual habit of urohidrosis, in which it urinates or defecates on its legs to cool them by evaporation.[23] Because of this habit, their legs are often streaked with a white buildup of uric acid.[24]

Diet

The Andean Condor is a scavenger, and feeds mainly on carrion.[21] Wild condors inhabit large territories, often traveling more than 200 km (100 mi) a day in search of carrion.[12] In inland areas, they prefer large carcasses, such as those of dead farm animals or wild deer, while when near the coast, their diet consists mainly of beached carcasses of marine mammals.[17] They will also raid the nests of smaller birds to feed on the eggs.[25] They locate carrion by spotting or following other scavengers, such as ravens or other vultures.[26] It may follow New World Vultures of the genus Cathartes—the Turkey Vulture, the Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture, and the Greater Yellow-headed Vulture— to carcasses. They forage by smell, detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals. These smaller vultures cannot rip through the tougher hides of these larger animals with the efficiency of the larger condor, and their interactions are often an example of mutual dependence between species.[27] In the wild Andean Condors are intermittent eaters, often going for a few days without eating, then gorging themselves on several pounds at once, sometimes to the point of being unable to lift off the ground. Because its feet and talons are not adapted to grasping, it must feed while on the ground.[12] Like other carrion-feeders, it plays an important role in its ecosystem by disposing of carrion which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease.[28]

Reproduction

A juvenile condor posing over Colca Canyon, Peru

Sexual maturity and breeding behavior do not appear in the Andean Condor until five or six years of age.[29] They may live for 50 years or more, and mate for life. During courtship displays, the skin of the male's neck flushes, changing from dull red to bright yellow, and inflates.[30] He approaches the female with neck outstretched, revealing the inflated neck and the chest patch, while hissing,[31] then extends his wings and stands erect while clicking the tongue.[17] Other courtship rituals include hissing and clucking while hopping with wings partially spread, and dancing.[12] The Andean condor prefers to roost and breed at elevations of 3,000 to 5,000 m (10,000-16,000 ft).[32] There, on inaccessible ledges of rock, its nest consisting merely of a few sticks placed around the eggs, it deposits one or two bluish-white eggs, weighing about 280 g (10 oz) and from 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in) in length, during the months of February and March every second year. The egg hatches after 54-58 days of incubation by both parents.[17] If the chick or egg is lost or removed, another egg is laid to take its place. Researchers and breeders take advantage of this behavior to double the reproductive rate by taking the first egg away for hand-rearing, causing the parents to lay a second egg, which they are generally allowed to raise.[33]

The young are covered with a grayish down until they are almost as large as their parents. They are able to fly after six months,[13] but continue to roost and hunt with their parents until age two, when they are displaced by a new clutch.[34] There is a well developed social structure within large groups of condors, with competition to determine a 'pecking order' by body language, competitive play behavior, and vocalizations.[35]

Relationship with Humans

"Condors." Illustrated London Reading Book (1851)

The Andean Condor is a national symbol of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. It is the national bird of Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, and Ecuador.[36] It plays an important role in the folklore and mythology of the South American Andean regions,[37] similar to the role the Bald Eagle plays in North America. Condors have been represented in Andean art from c. 2500 BCE onward,[38], and they are a part of indigenous Andean religions.[39] The Andean Condor considered a symbol of power and health by many Andean cultures. It was believed that the bones and organs of the Andean Condor possess medicinal powers, sometimes leading to the hunting and killing of condors to obtain the bones and organs.[40]

The Andean Condor is considered near threatened by the IUCN.[2] It was first placed on the Endangered Species list in 1973.[41] Threats to its population include loss of habitat needed for foraging and secondary poisoning from animals killed by hunters.[42] It is threatened mainly in the northern area of its range, and is rare in Venezuela and Colombia, where it has undergone considerable declines in recent years.[43] Reintroduction programs using captive-bred Andean Condors have been introduced in Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia. These programs release birds hatched in North American zoos into the wild to bolster Andean Condor populations.[44] Chicks are fed with glove puppets which resemble adult Andean Condors, in order to prevent the chicks from imprinting on humans, which would endanger them upon release as they would not be wary of humans.[45] Human contact is as minimal as possible. The condors are kept in aviaries for three months prior to release to allow them to acclimatize.[45] Because it is adapted to very low mortality and correspondingly low reproductive rates, it is extremely vulnerable to human persecution.[2] Much of the persecution by humans which occurs stems from the fact that it is perceived as a threat by farmers due to alleged attacks on livestock.[37]

The Andean Condor is featured in several Coat of arms of Andean countries as a symbol of Andes mountains.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Template:IUCN2006
  2. ^ a b c d e "Species factsheet: Vultur Gryphus". BirdLife International. 2004. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
  3. ^ Template:La icon Linnaeus, C (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 824.
  4. ^ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0.
  5. ^ Liddell, Henry George (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ a b Remsen, J. V., Jr.; C. D. Cadena; A. Jaramillo; M. Nores; J. F. Pacheco; M. B. Robbins; T. S. Schulenberg; F. G. Stiles; D. F. Stotz & K. J. Zimmer. 2007. A classification of the bird species of South America. South American Classification Committee. Retrieved on 2007-10-15
  7. ^ a b Sibley, Charles G. and Burt L. Monroe. 1990. Distribution and Taxonomy of the Birds of the World. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04969-2. Accessed 2007-04-11.
  8. ^ Sibley, Charles G., and Jon E. Ahlquist. 1991. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04085-7. Accessed 2007-04-11.
  9. ^ Ericson, Per G. P.; Anderson, Cajsa L.; Britton, Tom; Elżanowski, Andrzej; Johansson, Ulf S.; Kallersjö, Mari; Ohlson, Jan I.; Parsons, Thomas J.; Zuccon, Dario & Mayr, Gerald (2006): Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. Biology Letters online: 1-5. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523 PDF preprint Electronic Supplementary Material (PDF)
  10. ^ Fisher (1944)
  11. ^ Ferguson-Lees & Christie (2001)
  12. ^ a b c d e Lutz, Dick (2002). Patagonia: At the Bottom of the World. DIMI Press. pp. 71–74. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthor= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |ibsn= ignored (help)
  13. ^ a b c d e Hilty, Stephen L. (1977). A Guide to the Birds of Colombia. Princeton University Press. p. 88. ISBN 069108372X.
  14. ^ Ferguson-Lees & Christie (2001)
  15. ^ "Behavior of the Andean Condor". Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
  16. ^ a b Blake, Emmet Reid (1953). Birds of Mexico: A Guide for Field Identification. University of Chicago Press. pp. 262–263. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |ibsn= ignored (help)
  17. ^ a b c d Friends of the Zoo. "Andean Condor". Smithsonian National Zoological Park. Retrieved 2008-01-08.
  18. ^ Fisher, Harvey I. (February), "The Pterylosis of the Andean Condor", Condor, 44 (1): 30–32 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= and |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
  19. ^ "Habitat of the Andean Condor". Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
  20. ^ Kricher, John C. (1997). A Neotropical Companion. Princeton University Press. p. 224. ISBN 0691009740.
  21. ^ a b Wehner, Ross (2007). Moon Peru. Avalon Travel. p. 180. ISBN 1566919835. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ Benson, Sara & Paul Hellander (2007). Peru. Lonely Planet Publications. p. 53. ISBN 1740597494.
  23. ^ Sibley, Charles G. and Jon E. Ahlquist (1991). Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04085-7.
  24. ^ Feduccia, J. Alan (1999). The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Yale University Press. p. 300. ISBN 0226056414.
  25. ^ "Andean Condor (Vultur Gryphus)". National Geographic. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
  26. ^ Snyder, Noel F. R. and Helen Snyder (2006). Raptors of North America: Natural History and Conservation. Voyageur Press. p. 45. ISBN 0760325820.
  27. ^ Muller-Schwarze, Dietland (2006). Chemical Ecology of Vertebrates. Cambridge University Press. p. 350. ISBN 0521363772.
  28. ^ Gomez, LG; Houston, DC; Cotton, P; Tye, A (1994). "The role of greater yellow-headed vultures Cathartes melambrotus as scavengers in neotropical forest". Ibis. 136 (2): 193–196. Retrieved 2008-01-06.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ "Andean Condor (Vultur Gryphus)". The Peregrine Fund. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
  30. ^ Whitson, Martha A (1968). "Breeding Behavior of the Andean Condor (Vultur Gryphus)" (PDF). Condor. 71. Cooper Ornithological Society: 73–75. Retrieved 2007-01-10. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Gailey, Janet (1973). "Observations on the Breeding Behavior of the Andean Condor (Vultur Gryphus)" (PDF). Condor. 75. Cooper Ornithological Society: 60–68. Retrieved 2007-01-10. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Fjeldså, Jon (1990). Birds of the High Andes. Apollo Books. p. 90. ISBN 8788757161. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ National Research Council (1992). Scientific Bases for the Preservation of the Hawaiian Crow. National Academies Press. p. 74. ISBN 0309047757. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |last= at position 18 (help)
  34. ^ See e.g. Cisneros-Heredia (2006) for a record of a juvenile accompanying an adult male in July, too early to have been of that year's cohort.
  35. ^ Donazard, José A (2002). "Social structure of Andean Condor roosts: Influence of sex, age, and season". Condor. 104 (1). Cooper Ornithological Society: 832–837. Retrieved 2008-01-10. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ MacDonald, Tina. "National Birds". Retrieved 2007-10-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ a b Tait, Malcolm (2006). Going, Going, Gone: Animals and Plants on the Brink of Extinction. Sterling Publishing. p. 22. ISBN 1845250273.
  38. ^ Werness, Hope B. (2004). The Continuum Encyclopedia of Animal Symbolism in Art. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103. ISBN 0826415253.
  39. ^ Howard-Malverde, Rosaleen (1997). Creating Context in Andean Cultures. Oxford University Press. p. 16. ISBN 0195109147.
  40. ^ "History of the Andean Condor". Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
  41. ^ "Andean Condor at a glance". Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
  42. ^ Reading, Richard P. (2000). Endangered Animals: A Reference Guide to Conflicting Issues. Greenwood Press. p. 16. ISBN 0313308160. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Beletsky, Les (2006). Birds of the World. JHU Press. p. 70. ISBN 0801884292.
  44. ^ Roach, John (2004-07-22). "Peru's Andean Condors Are Rising Tourist Attraction". National Geographic News. National Geographic. Retrieved 2007-01-10.
  45. ^ a b Pullin, Andrew S. (2002). Conservation Biology. Cambridge University Press. p. 234. ISBN 0521644828.

References

  • Cisneros-Heredia, Diego F. (2006): Notes on breeding, behaviour and distribution of some birds in Ecuador. Bull. B.O.C. 126(2): 153-164.
  • Ericson, Per G. P.; Anderson, Cajsa L.; Britton, Tom; Elżanowski, Andrzej; Johansson, Ulf S.; Kallersjö, Mari; Ohlson, Jan I.; Parsons, Thomas J.; Zuccon, Dario & Mayr, Gerald (2006): Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils. Biology Letters, in press. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523 PDF preprint Electronic Supplementary Material
  • Ferguson-Lees, James & Christie, David A. (2001): Raptors of the World. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. ISBN 0-618-12762-3
  • Fisher, Harvey L. (1944): The skulls of the Cathartid vultures. Condor 46(6): 272-296. PDF fulltext
  • Sibley, Charles Gald & Ahlquist, Jon Edward ([1991]): Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. ISBN 0-300-04085-7
  • Sibley, Charles Gald & Monroe, Burt L. Jr. (1990): Distribution and taxonomy of the birds of the world: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. ISBN 0-300-04969-2
  • South American Classification Committee (SACC) (2007): A classification of the bird species of South America. Version 2007-09-21. Accessed 2007-09-23.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vultur gryphus.
Wikispecies has information related to Vultur gryphus.

Video footage of Peruvian Condors in flight can be seen at:

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