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Social development

Identity development

A common belief about adolescence is that it is the time when teenagers form personal identities. Egocentrism in adolescents forms a self-conscious desire to feel important in their peer groups and enjoy social acceptance.^[1] Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as identity development, rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one's thoughts about the self.^[2] Since choices made during adolescent years can influence later life, high levels of self-awareness and self-control during mid-adolescence will lead to better decisions during the transition to adulthood.^{[citation needed]} Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. The years of adolescence create a more conscientious group of young adults. Adolescents pay close attention and give more time and effort to their appearance as their body goes through changes. Unlike children, teens put forth an effort to look presentable (1991).^[3] The environment in which an adolescent grows up also plays an important role in their identity development. Studies done by the American Psychological Association have shown that adolescents with a less privileged upbringing have a more difficult time developing their identity.^[4]

Self-concept

Early in adolescence, cognitive developments result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children, they defined themselves with physical traits whereas as adolescents, they define themselves based on their values, thoughts and opinions.^[5]

Adolescents can conceptualize multiple "possible selves" they could become^[6] and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices.^[7] Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the actual self toward the ideal self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible selves.^[6]^[8]

Further distinctions in self-concept, called "differentiation," occur as the adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves.^[9] Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence.^[10] Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the personality traits adolescents use to describe themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another. The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source of distress in these years (see Cognitive dissonance),^[11] but this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging structural development.

Sense of identity

Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a self-concept, whereas Erik Erikson argued that not everyone fully achieves identity. Erikson's theory of stages of development includes the identity crisis in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a stage of "identity achievement" but also stressed that the identity challenge "is never fully resolved once and for all at one point in time".^[12] Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their crowd membership. "Clothes help teens explore new identities, separate from parents, and bond with peers." Fashion has played a major role when it comes to teenagers "finding their selves"; Fashion is always evolving, which corresponds with the evolution of change in the personality of teenagers.^[13] Just as fashion is evolving to influence adolescents so is the media. "Modern life takes place amidst a never-ending barrage of flesh on screens, pages, and billboards."^[14] This barrage consciously or subconsciously registers into the mind causing issues with self-image a factor that contributes to an adolescence sense of identity. Researcher James Marcia developed the current method for testing an individual's progress along these stages.^[15]^[16] His questions are divided into three categories: occupation, ideology, and interpersonal relationships. Answers are scored based on extent to which the individual has explored and the degree to which he has made commitments. The result is classification of the individual into a) identity diffusion in which all children begin, b) Identity Foreclosure in which commitments are made without the exploration of alternatives, c) Moratorium, or the process of exploration, or d) Identity Achievement in which Moratorium has occurred and resulted in commitments.^[17]

Research since reveals self-examination beginning early in adolescence, but identity achievement rarely occurring before age 18.^[18] The freshman year of college influences identity development significantly, but may actually prolong psychosocial moratorium by encouraging reexamination of previous commitments and further exploration of alternate possibilities without encouraging resolution.^[19] For the most part, evidence has supported Erikson's stages: each correlates with the personality traits he originally predicted.^[17] Studies also confirm the impermanence of the stages; there is no final endpoint in identity development.^[20]

Environment and identity

An adolescent's environment plays a huge role in their identity development.^[4] While most adolescent studies are conducted on white, middle class children, studies show that the more privileged upbringing people have, the more successfully they develop their identity.^[4] The forming of an adolescent's identity is a crucial time in their life. It has been recently found that demographic patterns suggest that the transition to adulthood is now occurring over a longer span of years than was the case during the middle of the 20th century. Accordingly, youth, a period that spans late adolescence and early adulthood, has become a more prominent stage of the life course. This therefore has caused various factors to become important during this development.^[21] So many factors contribute to the developing social identity of an adolescent from commitment, to coping devices,^[22] to social media. All of these factors are affected by the environment an adolescent grows up in. A child from a more privileged upbringing is exposed to more opportunities and better situations in general. An adolescent from an inner city or a crime-driven neighborhood is more likely to be exposed to an environment that can be detrimental to their development. Adolescence is a sensitive period in the development process, and exposure to the wrong things at that time can have a major affect on future decisions. While children that grow up in nice suburban communities are not exposed to bad environments they are more likely to participate in activities that can benefit their identity and contribute to a more successful identity development.^[4]

Sexual orientation and identity

Sexual orientation has been defined as "an erotic inclination toward people of one or more genders, most often described as sexual or erotic attractions".^[23] In recent years, psychologists have sought to understand how sexual orientation develops during adolescence. Some theorists believe that there are many different possible developmental paths one could take, and that the specific path an individual follows may be determined by their sex, orientation, and when they reached the onset of puberty.^[23]

In 1989, Troiden proposed a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity.^[24] The first stage, known as sensitization, usually starts in childhood, and is marked by the child's becoming aware of same-sex attractions. The second stage, identity confusion, tends to occur a few years later. In this stage, the youth is overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation, and begins to engage sexual experiences with same-sex partners. In the third stage of identity assumption, which usually takes place a few years after the adolescent has left home, adolescents begin to come out to their family and close friends, and assumes a self-definition as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.^[25] In the final stage, known as commitment, the young adult adopts their sexual identity as a lifestyle. Therefore, this model estimates that the process of coming out begins in childhood, and continues through the early to mid 20s. This model has been contested, and alternate ideas have been explored in recent years.

In terms of sexual identity, adolescence is when most gay/lesbian and transgender adolescents begin to recognize and make sense of their feelings. Many adolescents may choose to come out during this period of their life once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of questioning or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual and heterosexual experiences.^[26] A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one's sexual orientation occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively.^[27] Coming to terms with and creating a positive LGBT identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their sexuality or gender identity are surrounded by heteronormative peers and can cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence.^[26] Because of this, statistically the suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from peers or family members.^[28]

Self-esteem

The final major aspect of identity formation is self-esteem, one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence.^[29] "Barometric self-esteem" fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence.^[30] The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience.^[31] Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. When they fail to win friends' approval or couldn't find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these cases, girls suffer from low self-esteem. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority.^[32]As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. Due to the fact that both men and women happen to have a low self-esteem after ending a romantic relationship, they are prone to other symptoms that is caused by this state. Depression and hopelessness are only two of the various symptoms and it is said that women are twice as likely to experience depression and men are three to four times more likely to commit suicide (Mearns, 1991; Ustun & Sartorius, 1995).^[33]

Relationships

In general

The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in the social development of an adolescent. As an adolescent's social sphere develops rapidly as they distinguish the differences between friends and acquaintances, they often become heavily emotionally invested in friends.^[34] This is not harmful; however, if these friends expose an individual to potentially harmful situations, this is an aspect of peer pressure. Adolescence is a vital period in social development because adolescents can be easily influenced by the people they develop close relationships with. This is the first time individuals can truly make their own decisions, which also makes this a sensitive period. Relationships are vital in the social development of an adolescent due to the extreme influence peers can have over an individual. These relationships become vital because they begin to help the adolescent understand the concept of personalities, how they form and why a person has that specific type of personality. "The use of psychological comparisons could serve both as an index of the growth of an implicit personality theory and as a component process accounting for its creation. In other words, by comparing one person's personality characteristics to another's, we would be setting up the framework for creating a general theory of personality (and, ... such a theory would serve as a useful framework for coming to understand specific persons)."^[35] Research shows that relationships have the largest affect over the social development of an individual.

Family

Adolescence marks a rapid change in one's role within a family. Young children tend to assert themselves forcefully, but are unable to demonstrate much influence over family decisions until early adolescence,^[36] when they are increasingly viewed by parents as equals. When children go through puberty, there is often a significant increase in parent-child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond. Arguments often concern minor issues of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the adolescent's right to privacy,^[37]^[38] which adolescents may have previously viewed as issues over which their parents had complete authority.^[39] Parent-adolescent disagreement also increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on one another, new influences on the adolescent that may be in opposition to parents' values. Social media has also played an increasing role in adolescent and parent disagreements.^[40] While parents never had to worry about the threats of social media in the past, it has become a dangerous place for children. While adolescents strive for their freedoms, the unknowns to parents of what their child is doing on social media sites is a challenging subject, due to the increasing amount of predators on social media sites. Many parents have very little knowledge of social networking sites in the first place and this further increases their mistrust. Although conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, these are just relatively minor issues. Regarding their important life issues, most adolescents still share the same attitudes and values as their parents.^[41]

During childhood, siblings are a source of conflict and frustration as well as a support system.^[42] Adolescence may affect this relationship differently, depending on sibling gender. In same-sex sibling pairs, intimacy increases during early adolescence, then remains stable. Mixed-sex siblings pairs act differently; siblings drift apart during early adolescent years, but experience an increase in intimacy starting at middle adolescence.^[43] Sibling interactions are children's first relational experiences, the ones that shape their social and self-understanding for life.^[44] Sustaining positive sibling relations can assist adolescents in a number of ways. Siblings are able to act as peers, and may increase one another's sociability and feelings of self-worth. Older siblings can give guidance to younger siblings, although the impact of this can be either positive or negative depending on the activity of the older sibling.

A potential important influence on adolescence is change of the family dynamic, specifically divorce. With the divorce rate up to about 50%,^[45] divorce is common and adds to the already great amount of change in adolescence. Custody disputes soon after a divorce often reflect a playing out of control battles and ambivalence between parents. In extreme cases of instability and abuse in homes, divorce can have a positive effect on families due to less conflict in the home. However, most research suggests a negative effect on adolescence as well as later development. A recent study found that, compared with peers who grow up in stable post-divorce families, children of divorce who experience additional family transitions during late adolescence, make less progress in their math and social studies performance over time.^[46] Another recent study put forth a new theory entitled the adolescent epistemological trauma theory,^[47] which posited that traumatic life events such as parental divorce during the formative period of late adolescence portend lifelong effects on adult conflict behavior that can be mitigated by effective behavioral assessment and training.^[48] A parental divorce during childhood or adolescence continues to have a negative effect when a person is in his or her twenties and early thirties. These negative effects include romantic relationships and conflict style, meaning as adults, they are more likely to use the styles of avoidance and competing in conflict management.^[49]

Despite changing family roles during adolescence, the home environment and parents are still important for the behaviors and choices of adolescents.^[50] Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risk behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting, and/or unprotected sexual intercourse.^[50] In addition, parents influence the education of adolescence. A study conducted by Adalbjarnardottir and Blondal (2009) showed that adolescents at the age of 14 who identify their parents as authoritative figures are more likely to complete secondary education by the age of 22—as support and encouragement from an authoritative parent motivates the adolescence to complete schooling to avoid disappointing that parent.^[51]

Peers

Peer groups are essential to social and general development. High quality friendships may enhance children's development regardless of the characteristics of those friends. As children begin to gain bonds with various people and create friendships with them, it later helps them when they are adolescent. This sets up the framework for adolescence and peer groups.^[52] Peer groups are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers^[53] and a decrease in adult supervision.^[54] Adolescents also associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood^[55] and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics.^[56] It is also common for adolescents to use friends as coping devices in different situations.^[57] A three factor structure of dealing with friends including avoidance, mastery, and nonchalance has shown that adolescent's use friends as coping devices with social stresses.

Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as on academic motivation and performance. But they can also have negative influences, like encouraging experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing through peer pressure.^[58] Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter.^[59]

During early adolescence, adolescents often associate in cliques, exclusive, single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close. Despite the common notion that cliques are an inherently negative influence, they may help adolescents become socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity. Within a clique of highly athletic male-peers, for example, the clique may create a stronger sense of fidelity and competition. Cliques also have become somewhat as a "collective parent," i.e. telling the adolescents what to do and not to do.^[60] Towards late adolescence, cliques often merge into mixed-sex groups as teenagers begin romantically engaging with one another.^[61] These small friend groups break down even further as socialization becomes more couple-oriented.

While peers may facilitate social development for one another, they may also hinder it. In Spanish teenagers, emotional (rather than solution-based) reaction to problems and emotional instability have been linked with physical aggression against peers.^[62] Both physical and relational aggression are linked to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, especially depression, as is social rejection.^[63] Because of this, bullied adolescents often develop problems that lead to further victimization.^[64] Bullied adolescents are both more likely to continued to be bullied and more likely to bully others in the future.^[65] However, this relationship is less stable in cases of cyberbullying, a relatively new issue among adolescents.

On a larger scale, adolescents often associate with crowds, groups of individuals who share a common interest or activity. Often, crowd identities may be the basis for stereotyping young people, such as jocks or nerds. In large, multi-ethnic high schools, there are often ethnically-determined crowds as well.^[66] While crowds are very influential during early and middle adolescence, they lose salience during high school as students identify more individually.^[67]

Romance and sexual activity

Romantic relationships tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. By age 15, 53% of adolescents have had a romantic relationship that lasted at least one month over the course of the previous 18 months.^[68] In a 2008 study conducted by YouGov for Channel 4, 20% of 14−17-year-olds surveyed revealed that they had their first sexual experience at 13 or under in the United Kingdom.^[69] A 2002 American study found that those aged 15–44 reported that the average age of first sexual intercourse was 17.0 for males and 17.3 for females.^[70] The typical duration of relationships increases throughout the teenage years as well. This constant increase in the likelihood of a long-term relationship can be explained by sexual maturation and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond (e.g. caregiving, appropriate attachment), although these skills are not strongly developed until late adolescence.^[71] Long-term relationships allow adolescents to gain the skills necessary for high-quality relationships later in life^[72] and develop feelings of self-worth. Overall, positive romantic relationships among adolescents can result in long-term benefits. High-quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment in early adulthood^[73] and are positively associated with self-esteem, self-confidence, and social competence.^[74]^[75] For example, an adolescent with positive self-confidence is likely to consider themselves a more successful partner, whereas negative experiences may lead to low confidence as a romantic partner.^[76] Adolescents often date within their demographic in regards to race, ethnicity, popularity, and physical attractiveness.^[77] However, there are traits in which certain individuals, particularly adolescent girls, seek diversity. While most adolescents date people approximately their own age, boys typically date partners the same age or younger; girls typically date partners the same age or older.^[68]

Some researchers are now focusing on learning about how adolescents view their own relationships and sexuality; they want to move away from a research point of view that focuses on the problems associated with adolescent sexuality.^[why?] College Professor Lucia O'Sullivan and her colleagues found that there weren't any significant gender differences in the relationship events adolescent boys and girls from grades 7-12 reported.^[78] Most teens said they had kissed their partners, held hands with them, thought of themselves as being a couple and told people they were in a relationship. This means that private thoughts about the relationship as well as public recognition of the relationship were both important to the adolescents in the sample. Sexual events (such as sexual touching, sexual intercourse) were less common than romantic events (holding hands) and social events (being with one's partner in a group setting). The researchers state that these results are important because the results focus on the more positive aspects of adolescents and their social and romantic interactions rather than focusing on sexual behavior and its consequences.^[78]

Adolescence marks a time of sexual maturation, which manifests in social interactions as well. While adolescents may engage in casual sexual encounters (often referred to as hookups), most sexual experience during this period of development takes place within romantic relationships.^[79] Kissing, hand holding, and hugging signify satisfaction and commitment. Among young adolescents, "heavy" sexual activity, marked by genital stimulation, is often associated with violence, depression, and poor relationship quality.^[80]^[81] This effect does not hold true for sexual activity in late adolescence that takes place within a romantic relationship.^[82] Some research suggest that there are genetic causes of early sexual activity that are also risk factors for delinquency, suggesting that there is a group who are at risk for both early sexual activity and emotional distress. For old adolescents, though, sexual activity in the context of romantic relationships was actually correlated with lower levels of deviant behavior after controlling for genetic risks, as opposed to sex outside of a relationship (hook-ups)^[83]

Dating violence is fairly prevalent within adolescent relationships. When surveyed, 10-45% of adolescents reported having experienced physical violence in the context of a relationship while a quarter to a third of adolescents reported having experiencing psychological aggression. This reported aggression includes hitting, throwing things, or slaps, although most of this physical aggression does not result in a medical visit. Physical aggression in relationships tends to decline from high school through college and young adulthood. In heterosexual couples, there is no significant difference between the rates of male and female aggressors, unlike in adult relationships.^[84]^[85]^[86]

In contemporary society, adolescents also face some risks as their sexuality begins to transform. While some of these, such as emotional distress (fear of abuse or exploitation) and sexually transmitted infections/diseases (STIs/STDs), including HIV/AIDS, are not necessarily inherent to adolescence, others such as teenage pregnancy (through non-use or failure of contraceptives) are seen as social problems in most western societies. One in four sexually active teenagers will contract an STI.^[87] Adolescents in the United States often chose "anything but intercourse" for sexual activity because they mistakenly believe it reduces the risk of STIs. Across the country, clinicians report rising diagnoses of herpes and human papillomavirus (HPV), which can cause genital warts, and is now thought to affect 15 percent of the teen population. Girls 15 to 19 have higher rates of gonorrhea than any other age group. One-quarter of all new HIV cases occur in those under the age of 21.^[87] Multrine also states in her article that according to a March survey by the Kaiser Family Foundation, eighty-one percent of parents want schools to discuss the use of condoms and contraception with their children. They also believe students should be able to be tested for STIs. Furthermore, teachers want to address such topics with their students. But, although 9 in 10 sex education instructors across the country believe that students should be taught about contraceptives in school, over one quarter report receiving explicit instructions from school boards and administrators not to do so. According to anthropologist Margaret Mead, the turmoil found in adolescence in Western society has a cultural rather than a physical cause; they reported that societies where young women engaged in free sexual activity had no such adolescent turmoil.

Culture

Summary

There are certain characteristics of adolescent development that are more rooted in culture than in human biology or cognitive structures. Culture has been defined as the "symbolic and behavioral inheritance received from the past that provides a community framework for what is valued".^[88] Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual's life.^[89] Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief system development, for instance, are all things that are likely to vary by culture. Furthermore, distinguishing characteristics of youth, including dress, music and other uses of media, employment, art, food and beverage choices, recreation, and language, all constitute a youth culture.^[89] For these reasons, culture is a prevalent and powerful presence in the lives of adolescents, and therefore we cannot fully understand today's adolescents without studying and understanding their culture.^[89] However, "culture" should not be seen as synonymous with nation or ethnicity. Many cultures are present within any given country and racial or socioeconomic group. Furthermore, to avoid ethnocentrism, researchers must be careful not to define the culture's role in adolescence in terms of their own cultural beliefs.^[90]

Autonomy

The degree to which adolescents are perceived as autonomous beings varies greatly by culture, as do the behaviors that represent this emerging autonomy. Psychologists have identified three main types of autonomy: emotional autonomy, behavioral autonomy, and cognitive autonomy.^[91] Emotional autonomy is defined in terms of an adolescent's relationships with others, and often includes the development of more mature emotional connections with adults and peers.^[91] Behavioral autonomy encompasses an adolescent's developing ability to regulate his or her own behavior, to act on personal decisions, and to self-govern. Cultural differences are especially visible in this category because it concerns issues of dating, social time with peers, and time-management decisions.^[91] Cognitive autonomy describes the capacity for an adolescent to partake in processes of independent reasoning and decision-making without excessive reliance on social validation.^[91] Converging influences from adolescent cognitive development, expanding social relationships, an increasingly adultlike appearance, and the acceptance of more rights and responsibilities enhance feelings of autonomy for adolescents.^[91] Proper development of autonomy has been tied to good mental health, high self-esteem, self-motivated tendencies, positive self-concepts, and self-initiating and regulating behaviors.^[91] Furthermore, it has been found that adolescents' mental health is best when their feelings about autonomy match closely with those of their parents.^[92]

A questionnaire called the teen timetable has been used to measure the age at which individuals believe adolescents should be able to engage in behaviors associated with autonomy.^[93] This questionnaire has been used to gauge differences in cultural perceptions of adolescent autonomy, finding, for instance, that White parents and adolescents tend to expect autonomy earlier than those of Asian descent.^[93] It is therefore clear that cultural differences exist in perceptions of adolescent autonomy, and such differences have implications for the lifestyles and development of adolescents. In sub-Saharan African youth, the notions of individuality and autonomy may not be useful in understanding adolescent development. Rather, African notions of youth and adolescent development are relational and interdependent. ^[94]

Social roles and responsibilities

The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is profoundly shaped by the roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to assume. The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior. For instance, adolescents in certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities.^[95] Household chores are frequently divided into self-care tasks and family-care tasks. However, specific household responsibilities for adolescents may vary by culture, family type, and adolescent age.^[96] Some research has shown that adolescent participation in family work and routines has a positive influence on the development of an adolescent's feelings of self-worth, care, and concern for others.^[95]

In addition to the sharing of household chores, certain cultures expect adolescents to share in their family's financial responsibilities. According to family economic and financial education specialists, adolescents develop sound money management skills through the practices of saving and spending money, as well as through planning ahead for future economic goals.^[97] Differences between families in the distribution of financial responsibilities or provision of allowance may reflect various social background circumstances and intrafamilial processes, which are further influenced by cultural norms and values, as well as by the business sector and market economy of a given society.^[98] For instance, in many developing countries it is common for children to attend fewer years of formal schooling so that, when they reach adolescence, they can begin working.^[99]

While adolescence is a time frequently marked by participation in the workforce, the number of adolescents in the workforce is much lower now than in years past as a result of increased accessibility and perceived importance of formal higher education.^[100] For example, half of all 16-year olds in China were employed in 1980, whereas less than one fourth of this same cohort were employed in 1990.^[100]

Furthermore, the amount of time adolescents spend on work and leisure activities varies greatly by culture as a result of cultural norms and expectations, as well as various socioeconomic factors. American teenagers spend less time in school or working and more time on leisure activities—which include playing sports, socializing, and caring for their appearance—than do adolescents in many other countries.^[101] These differences may be influenced by cultural values of education and the amount of responsibility adolescents are expected to assume in their family or community.

Time management, financial roles, and social responsibilities of adolescents are therefore closely connected with the education sector and processes of career development for adolescents, as well as to cultural norms and social expectations. In many ways, adolescents' experiences with their assumed social roles and responsibilities determine the length and quality of their initial pathway into adult roles.^[102]

Belief system development

Adolescence is frequently characterized by a transformation of an adolescent's understanding of the world, the rational direction towards a life course, and the active seeking of new ideas rather than the unquestioning acceptance of adult authority.^[103] An adolescent begins to develop a unique belief system through his or her interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments.^[104] While organized religion is not necessarily a part of every adolescent's life experience, youth are still held responsible for forming a set of beliefs about themselves, the world around them, and whatever higher powers they may or may not believe in.^[103] This process is often accompanied or aided by cultural traditions that intend to provide a meaningful transition to adulthood through a ceremony, ritual, confirmation, or rite of passage.^[105]

Sexuality

Many cultures define the transition into adultlike sexuality by specific biological or social milestones in an adolescent's life. For example, menarche (the first menstrual period of a female), or semenarche (the first ejaculation of a male) are frequent sexual defining points for many cultures. In addition to biological factors, an adolescent's sexual socialization is highly dependent upon whether their culture takes a restrictive or permissive attitude toward teen or premarital sexual activity. Restrictive cultures overtly discourage sexual activity in unmarried adolescents or until an adolescent undergoes a formal rite of passage. These cultures may attempt to restrict sexual activity by separating males and females throughout their development, or through public shaming and physical punishment when sexual activity does occur.^[106] In less restrictive cultures, there is more tolerance for displays of adolescent sexuality, or of the interaction between males and females in public and private spaces. Less restrictive cultures may tolerate some aspects of adolescent sexuality, while objecting to other aspects. For instance, some cultures find teenage sexual activity acceptable but teenage pregnancy highly undesirable. Other cultures do not object to teenage sexual activity or teenage pregnancy, as long as they occur after marriage.^[107] In permissive societies, overt sexual behavior among unmarried teens is perceived as acceptable, and is sometimes even encouraged.^[107] Regardless of whether a culture is restrictive or permissive, there are likely to be discrepancies in how females versus males are expected to express their sexuality. Cultures vary in how overt this double standard is—in some it is legally inscribed, while in others it is communicated through social convention.^[108] Lesbian, gay, bi-sexual and transsexual youth face much discrimination through bullying from those unlike them and may find telling others that they are gay to be a traumatic experience^[109] The range of sexual attitudes that a culture embraces could thus be seen to affect the beliefs, lifestyles, and societal perceptions of its adolescents.

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^ ^a ^b Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 286. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^ Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology, pp. 159–187. New York: Wiley.
^ Montemayor, R., Brown, B., & Adams, G. (1985). Changes in identity status and psychological adjustment after leaving home and entering college. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Toronto.
^ Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 288. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
^ Furstenberg, Frank F. (November 2000). "The Sociology of Adolescence and Youth in the 1990s: A Critical Commentary". Journal of Marriage and Family. 62 (4): 896–910. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00896.x. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
^ How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment. Journal Of Early Adolescence.
^ ^a ^b Saewyc, E.M. (2011). "Research on Adolescent Sexual Orientation: Development, Health Disparities, Stigma, and Resilience". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 21: 256–272. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00727.x.
^ Troiden, R. R. (1989). "The formation of homosexual identities". Journal of Homosexuality. 17: 43–73. doi:10.1300/J082v17n01_02. PMID 2668403.
^ Floyd, Frank J.; Stein, Terry S. (2002). "Sexual orientation identity formation among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Multiple patterns of milestone experiences". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 12 (2): 167–191. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.00030.
^ ^a ^b Morrow, Deana (Jan–March 2004). "Social work practice with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender adolescents". Families in Society. 85 (1): 91–99. doi:10.1606/1044-3894.246. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ D'Augelli, Anthony; Scott Hershberger (1993). "Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings: Personal challenges and mental health problems". American journal of community psychology. 21 (4): 421–448. doi:10.1007/BF00942151.
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^ Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self concept from middle childhood through adolescence. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self, Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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^ "Conflict - Couple Relationships, Family Relationships, Parent-child Relationships - Theory, Development, Children, and Parents - JRank Articles". Family.jrank.org. Retrieved 2012-09-15.
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^ ^a ^b Mulrine, A."Risky Business." U.S. News & World Report. 27 May 2002: 42-49. SIRS Researcher. Web. 25 Oct 2010.
^ Lerner, J.V.; Lerner, R.M.,; Finkelstein, J. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara.: ABC-CLIO. p. 807. ISBN 1576072053.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors; Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor; foreword by Mark L. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 807. ISBN 1576072053. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors; Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor; foreword by Mark L. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 79. ISBN 1576072053. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Juang, L., Lerner, J. McKinney, J., & von Eye, A. (1999)
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[1] Carlson, N. R., & Heth, C. (2010). Psychology--the science of behaviour, fourth Canadian edition [by] Neil R. Carlson, C. Donald Heth. Toronto: Pearson.

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[12] Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 287. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

[13] "You're Wearing That?" by Stacey Schultz. US News & World Report Special Issue

[14] "The Media Assault on Male Body Image" by Brandon Klein. Seed Magazine.

[15] Marcia J (1966). "Development and validation of ego identity status". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 3 (5): 551–558. doi:10.1037/h0023281. PMID 5939604.

[16] Marcia J (1976). "Identity six years after: A follow-up study". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 3 (5): 551–558. doi:10.1037/h0023281. PMID 5939604.

[ReferenceA-17] Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 286. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

[18] Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology, pp. 159–187. New York: Wiley.

[19] Montemayor, R., Brown, B., & Adams, G. (1985). Changes in identity status and psychological adjustment after leaving home and entering college. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Toronto.

[20] Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 288. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

[21] Furstenberg, Frank F. (November 2000). "The Sociology of Adolescence and Youth in the 1990s: A Critical Commentary". Journal of Marriage and Family. 62 (4): 896–910. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00896.x. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[22] How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment. Journal Of Early Adolescence.

[Saewyc-23] Saewyc, E.M. (2011). "Research on Adolescent Sexual Orientation: Development, Health Disparities, Stigma, and Resilience". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 21: 256–272. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00727.x.

[24] Troiden, R. R. (1989). "The formation of homosexual identities". Journal of Homosexuality. 17: 43–73. doi:10.1300/J082v17n01_02. PMID 2668403.

[25] Floyd, Frank J.; Stein, Terry S. (2002). "Sexual orientation identity formation among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Multiple patterns of milestone experiences". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 12 (2): 167–191. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.00030.

[Morrow_2004_91–99-26] Morrow, Deana (Jan–March 2004). "Social work practice with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender adolescents". Families in Society. 85 (1): 91–99. doi:10.1606/1044-3894.246. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[27] D'Augelli, Anthony; Scott Hershberger (1993). "Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings: Personal challenges and mental health problems". American journal of community psychology. 21 (4): 421–448. doi:10.1007/BF00942151.

[28] "Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning Teen Suicide Statistics - Gay Teen Suicide Statistics". Gaylife.about.com. 2012-04-09. Retrieved 2012-09-15.

[29] Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 270. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

[30] Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self concept from middle childhood through adolescence. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self, Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

[31] Steinberg, L. (2008). Adolescence, 8th ed. 273. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

[32] "Psychology: The Science of Behaviour" 3rd Canadian Edition

[33] Osvelia Deeds, Jeannette Delgado, Miguel Diego, Tiffany Field, and Martha Pelaez (2009). "Adolescence".

[Adolescent_peer_pressure-34] "Adolescents and Peer Pressure". sitemaker.umich.edu/University of Michigan. Retrieved November 6, 2012.

[35] Barenboim, Carl (1 March 1981). "The Development of Person Perception in Childhood and Adolescence: From Behavioral Comparisons to Psychological Constructs to Psychological Comparisons". Child Development (52): 129–144. Retrieved 8 November 2012.

[36] Grotevant, H. (1997). Adolescent development in family contexts. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed.), Vol. 3: Social, emotional, and personality development, pp. 1097–1149. New York: Wiley.

[37] Steinberg L (2001). "We know some things: Adolescent-parent relationships in retrospect and prospect". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 11: 1–19. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.00001.

[38] "Conflict - Couple Relationships, Family Relationships, Parent-child Relationships - Theory, Development, Children, and Parents - JRank Articles". Family.jrank.org. Retrieved 2012-09-15.

[39] Smetana J. G. (1988). "Adolescents' and parents' conceptions of parental authority". Child Development. 59 (2): 321–335. doi:10.2307/1130313. PMID 3359858.

[Teens_Today-40] "Social Networking". theantidrug.com. Retrieved November 6, 2012.

[41] Neil R. Carlson C.Donald Heth, Psychology the Science of Behaviour, 4th Canadian Edition.

[42] Lempers J, Clark-Lempers D (1992). "Young, middle, and late adolescents; comparisons of the functional importance of five significant relationships". Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 21: 53–96. doi:10.1007/BF01536983.

[43] Kim J., McHale S. M., Osgood D. W., Grouter A. C. (2006). "Longitudinal course and family correlates of sibling relationships from childhood through adolescence". Child Development. 77 (6): 1746–1761. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00971.x. PMID 17107458.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[44] Marano, Hara Estroff. "Oh, Brother!." Psychology Today Vol. 43, No. 4. Jul/Aug 2010: 54-61. SIRS Researcher. Web. 25 Oct 2010.

[45] U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, updated and revised from "Families and Work in Transition in 12 Countries,1980–2001," Monthly Labor Review, September 2003

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[66] Brown, B., & Mounts, N. (1989, April). Peer groups structures in single versus multiethnic high schools. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research on Adolescence, San Diego.

[67] Larkin, R.W. (1979). Suburban youth in cultural crisis. New York: Oxford.

[Carver_K._2003-68] Carver K., Joyner K., Udry J.R. (2003). National estimates of adolescent romantic relationships. In Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications, 291–329.

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[71] Allen, J., & Land, D. (1999). Attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment theory and research. New York: Guilford Press.

[72] Madsen S., Collins W. A. (2005). Differential predictions of young adult romantic relationships from transitory vs. longer romantic experiences during adolescence. Presented at Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, Atlanta, GA.

[73] Seiffge-Krenke I., Lang J. (2002). Forming and maintaining romantic relations from early adolescence to young adulthood: evidence of a developmental sequence. Presented at Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 19th, New Orleans, LA.

[74] Pearce M. J., Boergers J., Prinstein M.J. (2002). "Adolescent obesity, overt and relational peer victimization, and romantic relationships". Obesity Research. 10 (5): 386–93. doi:10.1038/oby.2002.53. PMID 12006638.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[75] Zimmer-Gembeck M.J., Siebenbruner J., Collins W.A. (2004). "A prospective study of intraindividual and peer influences on adolescents' heterosexual romantic and sexual behavior". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 33 (4): 381–394. doi:10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028891.16654.2c. PMID 15162084.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[76] Furman, W. & Shafer, L. (2003) The role of romantic relationships in adolescent development.http://www.du.edu/psychology/relationshipcenter/publications/furman_shaffer_2003.pdf

[77] Simon V. A., Aikins J. W., Prinstein M. J. (2008). Romantic partner selection and socialization during early adolescence. Child Dev. In press.

[O'Sullivan-78] O'Sullivan L. F., Cheng M., Brooks-Gunn J., -1#Mantsun K. Harris (2007). "I wanna hold your hand: The progression of social, romantic and sexual events in adolescent relationships". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 39 (2): 100–107. doi:10.1363/3910007. PMID 17565623.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

[79] Manning W., Longmore M., Giordano P. (2000). "The relationship context of contraceptive use at first intercourse". Family Planning Perspectives. 32 (3): 104–110. doi:10.2307/2648158. PMID 10894255.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[80] Welsh D. P., Haugen P. T., Widman L., Darling N., Grello C. M. (2005). "Kissing is good: a developmental investigation of sexuality in adolescent romantic couples". Sexuality Research and Social Policy. 2 (4): 32–41. doi:10.1525/srsp.2005.2.4.32.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[81] Williams T., Connolly J., Cribbie R. (2008). "Light and heavy heterosexual activities of young Canadian adolescents: normative patterns and differential predictors". Journal of Research on Adolescence. 18: 145–72. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00554.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[82] Grello C. M., Welsh D. P., Harper MS, Dickson J. (2003). "Dating and sexual relationship trajectories and adolescent functioning". Adolescent & Family Health. 3: 103–12.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[83] Harden K., Mendle J. (2011). "Adolescent sexual activity and the development of delinquent behavior: The role of relationship context". Journal Of Youth And Adolescence. 40 (7): 825–838. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9601-y.

[84] Halpern C., Oslak S., Young M., Martin S., Kupper L. (2001). "Partner violence among adolescents in opposite-sex romantic: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health". American Journal of Public Health. 91 (10): 1679–1685. doi:10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1679. PMC 1446854. PMID 11574335.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[85] Halpern C., Young M., Waller M., Martin S., Kupper L. (2004). "Prevalence of partner violence in same-sex romantic and sexual relationships in a national sample of adolescents". Journal of Adolescent Health. 35 (2): 124–131. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.09.003. PMID 15261641.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Collins2009-86] Collins W. A., Welsh D. P., Furman W. (2009). "Adolescent romantic relationships". Annual Review of Psychology. 60: 631–652. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163459. PMID 19035830.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Mulrine,_A_2010-87] Mulrine, A."Risky Business." U.S. News & World Report. 27 May 2002: 42-49. SIRS Researcher. Web. 25 Oct 2010.

[88] Lerner, J.V.; Lerner, R.M.,; Finkelstein, J. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara.: ABC-CLIO. p. 807. ISBN 1576072053.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Lerner_2001_807-89] Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors; Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor; foreword by Mark L. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 807. ISBN 1576072053. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[90] Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors; Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor; foreword by Mark L. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 271. ISBN 1576072053. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[Lerner_2001_79-91] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors; Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor; foreword by Mark L. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 79. ISBN 1576072053. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[92] Juang, L., Lerner, J. McKinney, J., & von Eye, A. (1999)

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[97] Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors; Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor; foreword by Mark L. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 44. ISBN 1576072053. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[98] Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors; Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor; foreword by Mark L. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 44–45. ISBN 1576072053. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[99] Larson, R., & Verma, S. (1999). How children and adolescents spend their time: Time budgest for locations, activities, and companionship. "American Journal of Community Psychology, 29", 565-597.

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[105] Lerner, Jacqueline V.; Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors; Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor; foreword by Mark L. (2001). Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. p. 578. ISBN 1576072053. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 Here is the Sandbox for our project! [[User:Ss13zf|Ss13zf]] ([[User talk:Ss13zf|talk]]) 18:12, 9 September 2014 (UTC)
+==Social development==
+===Identity development===
+A common belief about adolescence is that it is the time when teenagers form personal identities. [[Egocentrism]] in adolescents forms a self-conscious desire to feel important in their peer groups and enjoy social acceptance.<ref>Carlson, N. R., & Heth, C. (2010). Psychology--the science of behaviour, fourth Canadian edition [by] Neil R. Carlson, C. Donald Heth. Toronto: Pearson.</ref> Empirical studies suggest that this process might be more accurately described as [[Identity formation|identity development]], rather than formation, but confirms a normative process of change in both content and structure of one's thoughts about the self.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. New York, NY: [[McGraw-Hill]].</ref> Since choices made during adolescent years can influence later life, high levels of self-awareness and self-control during mid-adolescence will lead to better decisions during the transition to adulthood.{{Citation needed|date=September 2013}} Researchers have used three general approaches to understanding identity development: self-concept, sense of identity, and self-esteem. The years of adolescence create a more conscientious group of young adults. Adolescents pay close attention and give more time and effort to their appearance as their body goes through changes. Unlike children, teens put forth an effort to look presentable (1991).<ref name="psychtoday"/> The environment in which an adolescent grows up also plays an important role in their identity development. Studies done by the [[American Psychological Association]] have shown that adolescents with a less privileged upbringing have a more difficult time developing their identity.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment">[[American Psychological Association]] (APA). [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]].</ref>
+====Self-concept====
+{{See also|Self-concept}}
+Early in adolescence, [[cognitive development]]s result in greater self-awareness, greater awareness of others and their thoughts and judgments, the ability to think about abstract, future possibilities, and the ability to consider multiple possibilities at once. As a result, adolescents experience a significant shift from the simple, concrete, and global self-descriptions typical of young children; as children, they defined themselves with physical traits whereas as adolescents, they define themselves based on their values, thoughts and opinions.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carlson|first=Neil R.|title=Psychology: the science of behaviour|year=2010|publisher=Pearson Education Canada|location=Toronto, Ontario}}</ref>
+Adolescents can conceptualize multiple "possible selves" they could become<ref name="Markus1986">{{cite journal|author = Markus H., Nurius P.|year = 1986 | title = Possible selves|url =|journal = American Psychologist|volume = 41|issue = 9| pages = 954–969 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954 }}</ref> and long-term possibilities and consequences of their choices.<ref>Nurmi, J. (2004). Socialization and self-development: Channeling, selection, adjustment, and reflection. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), ''Handbook of adolescent psychology''. New York: Wiley.</ref> Exploring these possibilities may result in abrupt changes in self-presentation as the adolescent chooses or rejects qualities and behaviors, trying to guide the [[self-discrepancy theory#Actual|actual]] self toward the [[self-discrepancy theory#Ideal|ideal]] self (who the adolescent wishes to be) and away from the feared self (who the adolescent does not want to be). For many, these distinctions are uncomfortable, but they also appear to motivate achievement through behavior consistent with the ideal and distinct from the feared possible selves.<ref name="Markus1986" /><ref>{{cite journal | author = Oyserman D., Markus H. | year = 1990 | title = Possible selves and deliquency. | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 112–125 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.59.1.112 | pmid = 2213484 }}</ref>
+Further distinctions in self-concept, called "differentiation," occur as the adolescent recognizes the contextual influences on their own behavior and the perceptions of others, and begin to qualify their traits when asked to describe themselves.<ref name="Harter, S. 1999">Harter, S. (1999). ''The construction of the self''. New York: Guilford Press.</ref> Differentiation appears fully developed by mid-adolescence.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Marsh H | year = 1989 | title = Age and sex differences in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to earl adulthood | url = | journal = Journal of Educational Psychology | volume = 81 | issue = | pages = 417–430 | doi=10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.417}}</ref> Peaking in the 7th-9th grades, the [[personality traits]] adolescents use to describe themselves refer to specific contexts, and therefore may contradict one another. The recognition of inconsistent content in the self-concept is a common source of distress in these years (see [[Cognitive dissonance]]),<ref>{{cite journal | author = Harter S., Monsour A. | year = 1992 | title = Developmental analysis of conflict caused by opposing attributes in the adolescent self-portrait | url = | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 28 | issue = 2| pages = 251–260 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.251 }}</ref> but this distress may benefit adolescents by encouraging structural development.
+====Sense of identity====
+Unlike the conflicting aspects of self-concept, identity represents a coherent sense of self stable across circumstances and including past experiences and future goals. Everyone has a self-concept, whereas [[Erik Erikson]] argued that not everyone fully achieves identity. Erikson's theory of [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development|stages of development]] includes the [[identity crisis]] in which adolescents must explore different possibilities and integrate different parts of themselves before committing to their beliefs. He described the resolution of this process as a stage of "identity achievement" but also stressed that the identity challenge "is never fully resolved once and for all at one point in time".<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 287. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref> Adolescents begin by defining themselves based on their [[Crowds (adolescence)|crowd membership]]. "Clothes help teens explore new identities, separate from parents, and bond with peers." Fashion has played a major role when it comes to teenagers "finding their selves"; Fashion is always evolving, which corresponds with the evolution of change in the personality of teenagers.<ref>"You're Wearing That?" by Stacey Schultz. US News & World Report Special Issue</ref> Just as fashion is evolving to influence adolescents so is the media. "Modern life takes place amidst a never-ending barrage of flesh on screens, pages, and billboards."<ref>"The Media Assault on Male Body Image" by Brandon Klein. Seed Magazine.</ref> This barrage consciously or subconsciously registers into the mind causing issues with self-image a factor that contributes to an adolescence sense of identity.
+Researcher James Marcia developed the current method for testing an individual's progress along these stages.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Marcia J | year = 1966 | title = Development and validation of ego identity status | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 5| pages = 551–558 | doi = 10.1037/h0023281 | pmid = 5939604 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Marcia J | year = 1976 | title = Identity six years after: A follow-up study | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = 5| pages = 551–558 | pmid = 5939604 | doi=10.1037/h0023281}}</ref> His questions are divided into three categories: occupation, ideology, and [[interpersonal relationship]]s. Answers are scored based on extent to which the individual has explored and the degree to which he has made commitments. The result is classification of the individual into a) identity diffusion in which all children begin, b) Identity Foreclosure in which commitments are made without the exploration of alternatives, c) Moratorium, or the process of exploration, or d) Identity Achievement in which Moratorium has occurred and resulted in commitments.<ref name="ReferenceA">Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 286. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>
+Research since reveals self-examination beginning early in adolescence, but identity achievement rarely occurring before age 18.<ref>Marcia, J. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.), ''Handbook of adolescent psychology'', pp.&nbsp;159–187. New York: Wiley.</ref> The freshman year of college influences identity development significantly, but may actually prolong psychosocial moratorium by encouraging reexamination of previous commitments and further exploration of alternate possibilities without encouraging resolution.<ref>Montemayor, R., Brown, B., & Adams, G. (1985). Changes in identity status and psychological adjustment after leaving home and entering college. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development, Toronto.</ref> For the most part, evidence has supported Erikson's stages: each correlates with the personality traits he originally predicted.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Studies also confirm the impermanence of the stages; there is no final endpoint in identity development.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 288. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>
+====Environment and identity====
+An adolescent's environment plays a huge role in their identity development.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/> While most adolescent studies are conducted on white, middle class children, studies show that the more privileged upbringing people have, the more successfully they develop their identity.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/> The forming of an adolescent's identity is a crucial time in their life. It has been recently found that demographic patterns suggest that the transition to adulthood is now occurring over a longer span of years than was the case during the middle of the 20th century. Accordingly, youth, a period that spans late adolescence and early adulthood, has become a more prominent stage of the life course. This therefore has caused various factors to become important during this development.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Furstenberg|first=Frank F.|title=The Sociology of Adolescence and Youth in the 1990s: A Critical Commentary|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|date=November 2000|volume=62|issue=4|pages=896–910|accessdate=11/11/12|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00896.x}}</ref>  So many factors contribute to the developing social identity of an adolescent from commitment, to coping devices,<ref>How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment. ''Journal Of Early Adolescence.''</ref> to social media. All of these factors are affected by the environment an adolescent grows up in. A child from a more privileged upbringing is exposed to more opportunities and better situations in general. An adolescent from an inner city or a crime-driven neighborhood is more likely to be exposed to an environment that can be detrimental to their development.  Adolescence is a sensitive period in the development process, and exposure to the wrong things at that time can have a major affect on future decisions.  While children that grow up in nice suburban communities are not exposed to bad environments they are more likely to participate in activities that can benefit their identity and contribute to a more successful identity development.<ref name="APA on adolescent environment"/>
+====Sexual orientation and identity====
+[[Sexual orientation]] has been defined as "an erotic inclination toward people of one or more genders, most often described as sexual or erotic attractions".<ref name="Saewyc">{{cite journal|last=Saewyc|first=E.M.|title=Research on Adolescent Sexual Orientation: Development, Health Disparities, Stigma, and Resilience|journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence|year=2011|volume=21|pages=256–272|doi=10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00727.x}}</ref> In recent years, psychologists have sought to understand how sexual orientation develops during adolescence. Some theorists believe that there are many different possible developmental paths one could take, and that the specific path an individual follows may be determined by their sex, orientation, and when they reached the onset of puberty.<ref name="Saewyc"/>
+In 1989, Troiden proposed a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Troiden|first=R. R.|title=The formation of homosexual identities|journal=Journal of Homosexuality|year=1989|volume=17|pages=43–73|doi=10.1300/J082v17n01_02|pmid=2668403}}</ref>  The first stage, known as sensitization, usually starts in childhood, and is marked by the child's becoming aware of same-sex attractions. The second stage, identity confusion, tends to occur a few years later. In this stage, the youth is overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation, and begins to engage sexual experiences with same-sex partners. In the third stage of identity assumption, which usually takes place a few years after the adolescent has left home, adolescents begin to come out to their family and close friends, and assumes a self-definition as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Floyd|first=Frank J.|author2=Stein, Terry S.|title=Sexual orientation identity formation among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Multiple patterns of milestone experiences|journal=Journal of Research on Adolescence|year=2002|volume=12|issue=2|pages=167–191|doi=10.1111/1532-7795.00030}}</ref> In the final stage, known as commitment, the young adult adopts their sexual identity as a lifestyle. Therefore, this model estimates that the process of coming out begins in childhood, and continues through the early to mid 20s. This model has been contested, and alternate ideas have been explored in recent years.
+In terms of [[sexual identity]], adolescence is when most [[homosexuality|gay/lesbian]] and [[transgender youth|transgender]] adolescents begin to recognize and make sense of their feelings. Many adolescents may choose to [[coming out|come out]] during this period of their life once an identity has been formed; many others may go through a period of [[Questioning (sexuality and gender)|questioning]] or denial, which can include experimentation with both homosexual and heterosexual experiences.<ref name="Morrow 2004 91–99">{{cite journal|last=Morrow|first=Deana|title=Social work practice with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender adolescents|journal=Families in Society|date=Jan–March 2004|volume=85|issue=1|pages=91–99|doi=10.1606/1044-3894.246}}</ref> A study of 194 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths under the age of 21 found that having an awareness of one's sexual orientation occurred, on average, around age 10, but the process of coming out to peers and adults occurred around age 16 and 17, respectively.<ref>{{cite journal|last=D'Augelli|first=Anthony|author2=Scott Hershberger|title=Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings: Personal challenges and mental health problems|journal=American journal of community psychology|year=1993|volume=21|issue=4|pages=421–448|doi=10.1007/BF00942151}}</ref>  Coming to terms with and creating a positive [[LGBT]] identity can be difficult for some youth for a variety of reasons. Peer pressure is a large factor when youth who are questioning their sexuality or [[gender identity]] are surrounded by [[Heteronormativity|heteronormative]] peers and can cause great distress due to a feeling of being different from everyone else. While coming out can also foster better psychological adjustment, the risks associated are real. Indeed, coming out in the midst of a heteronormative peer environment often comes with the risk of ostracism, hurtful jokes, and even violence.<ref name="Morrow 2004 91–99"/>  Because of this, statistically the [[suicide rate]] amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers due to bullying and rejection from peers or family members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gaylife.about.com/od/gayteens/a/gaysuicide.htm |title=Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Questioning Teen Suicide Statistics - Gay Teen Suicide Statistics |publisher=Gaylife.about.com |date=2012-04-09 |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref>
+====Self-esteem====
+The final major aspect of identity formation is [[self-esteem]], one's thoughts and feelings about one's self-concept and identity. Contrary to popular belief, there is no empirical evidence for a significant drop in self-esteem over the course of adolescence.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 270. New York, NY: [[McGraw-Hill]].</ref> "Barometric self-esteem" fluctuates rapidly and can cause severe distress and anxiety, but baseline self-esteem remains highly stable across adolescence.<ref>Rosenberg, M. (1986). Self concept from middle childhood through adolescence. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (Eds.), ''Psychological perspectives on the self'', Vol. 3. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref> The validity of global self-esteem scales has been questioned, and many suggest that more specific scales might reveal more about the adolescent experience.<ref>Steinberg, L. (2008). ''Adolescence'', 8th ed. 273. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref>
+Girls are most likely to enjoy high self-esteem when engaged in supportive relationships with friends, the most important function of friendship to them is having someone who can provide social and moral support. When they fail to win friends' approval or couldn't find someone with whom to share common activities and common interests, in these cases, girls suffer from low self-esteem. In contrast, boys are more concerned with establishing and asserting their independence and defining their relation to authority.<ref>"Psychology: The Science of Behaviour" 3rd Canadian Edition</ref><!--citation is inadequately specific e.g. author etc-->As such, they are more likely to derive high self-esteem from their ability to successfully influence their friends; on the other hand, the lack of romantic competence, for example, failure to win or maintain the affection of the opposite or same-sex (depending on sexual orientation), is the major contributor to low self-esteem in adolescent boys. Due to the fact that both men and women happen to have a low self-esteem after ending a romantic relationship, they are prone to other symptoms that is caused by this state. Depression and hopelessness are only two of the various symptoms and it is said that women are twice as likely to experience depression and men are three to four times more likely to commit suicide (Mearns, 1991; Ustun & Sartorius, 1995).<ref>Osvelia Deeds, Jeannette Delgado, Miguel Diego, Tiffany Field, and Martha Pelaez (2009). "Adolescence".</ref>
+===Relationships===
+====In general====
+The relationships adolescents have with their peers, family, and members of their social sphere play a vital role in the social development of an adolescent. As an adolescent's social sphere develops rapidly as they distinguish the differences between friends and acquaintances, they often become heavily emotionally invested in friends.<ref name="Adolescent peer pressure">{{cite web|title=Adolescents and Peer Pressure|publisher=sitemaker.umich.edu/[[University of Michigan]]|accessdate=November 6, 2012|url=http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.darnell/peer_pressure}}</ref> This is not harmful; however, if these friends expose an individual to potentially harmful situations, this is an aspect of [[peer pressure]]. Adolescence is a vital period in social development because adolescents can be easily influenced by the people they develop close relationships with. This is the first time individuals can truly make their own decisions, which also makes this a sensitive period. Relationships are vital in the social development of an adolescent due to the extreme influence peers can have over an individual. These relationships become vital because they begin to help the adolescent understand the concept of personalities, how they form and why a person has that specific type of personality. "The use of psychological comparisons could serve both as an index of the growth of an implicit personality theory and as a component process accounting for its creation. In other words, by comparing one person's personality characteristics to another's, we would be setting up the framework for creating a general theory of personality (and,&nbsp;... such a theory would serve as a useful framework for coming to understand specific persons)."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barenboim|first=Carl|title=The Development of Person Perception in Childhood and Adolescence: From Behavioral Comparisons to Psychological Constructs to Psychological Comparisons|journal=Child Development|issue=52|pages=129–144|url=http://0-web.ebscohost.com.helin.uri.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&hid=14&sid=fdbcae39-8efd-4773-976a-e26f2afc32b7%40sessionmgr13|accessdate=8 November 2012|date=1 March 1981}}</ref> Research shows that relationships have the largest affect over the social development of an individual.
+====Family====
+{{See also|Depression in childhood and adolescence|Sibling relationship}}
+[[File:James Collinson - The Sisters.jpg|thumb|180px|Teenage sisters]]
+Adolescence marks a rapid change in one's role within a family. Young children tend to assert themselves forcefully, but are unable to demonstrate much influence over family decisions until early adolescence,<ref>Grotevant, H. (1997). Adolescent development in family contexts. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), ''Handbook of child psychology'' (5th ed.), Vol. 3: ''Social, emotional, and personality development'', pp. 1097–1149. New York: Wiley.</ref> when they are increasingly viewed by parents as equals. When children go through puberty, there is often a significant increase in parent-child conflict and a less cohesive familial bond. Arguments often concern minor issues of control, such as curfew, acceptable clothing, and the adolescent's right to privacy,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Steinberg L|year = 2001| title = We know some things: Adolescent-parent relationships in retrospect and prospect | url = | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 11 | issue = | pages = 1–19 | doi = 10.1111/1532-7795.00001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://family.jrank.org/pages/315/Conflict.html |title=Conflict - Couple Relationships, Family Relationships, Parent-child Relationships - Theory, Development, Children, and Parents - JRank Articles |publisher=Family.jrank.org |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> which adolescents may have previously viewed as issues over which their parents had complete authority.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Smetana J. G. | year = 1988 | title = Adolescents' and parents' conceptions of parental authority | url = | journal = Child Development | volume = 59 | issue = 2| pages = 321–335 | doi = 10.2307/1130313 | pmid = 3359858 }}</ref> Parent-adolescent disagreement also increases as friends demonstrate a greater impact on one another, new influences on the adolescent that may be in opposition to parents' values. Social media has also played an increasing role in adolescent and parent disagreements.<ref name="Teens Today">{{cite web|url=http://www.theantidrug.com/advice/teens-today/teens-and-technology/social-networking.aspx|title=Social Networking|publisher=theantidrug.com|accessdate=November 6, 2012}}</ref> While parents never had to worry about the threats of social media in the past, it has become a dangerous place for children. While adolescents strive for their freedoms, the unknowns to parents of what their child is doing on social media sites is a challenging subject, due to the increasing amount of predators on social media sites. Many parents have very little knowledge of social networking sites in the first place and this further increases their mistrust. Although conflicts between children and parents increase during adolescence, these are just relatively minor issues. Regarding their important life issues, most adolescents still share the same attitudes and values as their parents.<ref>Neil R. Carlson C.Donald Heth, Psychology the Science of Behaviour, 4th Canadian Edition.</ref>
+During [[childhood]], siblings are a source of conflict and frustration as well as a support system.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Lempers J, Clark-Lempers D | year = 1992 | title = Young, middle, and late adolescents; comparisons of the functional importance of five significant relationships | url = | journal = Journal of Youth and Adolescence | volume = 21 | issue = | pages = 53–96 | doi = 10.1007/BF01536983 }}</ref> Adolescence may affect this relationship differently, depending on sibling gender. In same-sex sibling pairs, intimacy increases during early adolescence, then remains stable. Mixed-sex siblings pairs act differently; siblings drift apart during early adolescent years, but experience an increase in intimacy starting at middle adolescence.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Kim J., McHale S. M., Osgood D. W., Grouter A. C. | year = 2006 | title = Longitudinal course and family correlates of sibling relationships from childhood through adolescence | url = | journal = Child Development | volume = 77 | issue = 6| pages = 1746–1761 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00971.x | pmid = 17107458 }}</ref> Sibling interactions are children's first relational experiences, the ones that shape their social and self-understanding for life.<ref>Marano, Hara Estroff. "Oh, Brother!." Psychology Today Vol. 43, No. 4. Jul/Aug 2010: 54-61. SIRS Researcher. Web. 25 Oct 2010.</ref> Sustaining positive sibling relations can assist adolescents in a number of ways. Siblings are able to act as peers, and may increase one another's sociability and feelings of self-worth. Older siblings can give guidance to younger siblings, although the impact of this can be either positive or negative depending on the activity of the older sibling.
+A potential important influence on adolescence is change of the family dynamic, specifically [[divorce]]. With the divorce rate up to about 50%,<ref>U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, updated and revised from "Families and Work in Transition in 12 Countries,1980–2001," Monthly Labor Review, September 2003</ref> divorce is common and adds to the already great amount of change in adolescence. [[Child custody|Custody]] disputes soon after a divorce often reflect a playing out of control battles and ambivalence between parents. In extreme cases of instability and abuse in homes, divorce can have a positive effect on families due to less conflict in the home. However, most research suggests a negative effect on adolescence as well as later development. A recent study found that, compared with peers who grow up in stable post-divorce families, children of divorce who experience additional family transitions during late adolescence, make less progress in their math and social studies performance over time.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sun Y., Li Y. | year = 2009 | title = Postdivorce family stability and changes in adolescents' academic performance: A growth-curve model | url = | journal = Journal Of Family Issues | volume = 30 | issue = 11| pages = 1527–1555 | doi=10.1177/0192513x09339022 }}</ref> Another recent study put forth a new theory entitled the adolescent epistemological trauma theory,<ref>http://search.proquest.com/docview/1018397533/abstract?accountid=12933</ref> which posited that traumatic life events such as parental divorce during the formative period of late adolescence portend lifelong effects on adult conflict behavior that can be mitigated by effective behavioral assessment and training.<ref>Ziemer, B. S. (2012). Epistemological effects of divorce during adolescence on adult conflict behavior. Nova Southeastern University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, , 262.</ref> A parental divorce during childhood or adolescence continues to have a negative effect when a person is in his or her twenties and early thirties. These negative effects include romantic relationships and conflict style, meaning as adults, they are more likely to use the styles of avoidance and competing in conflict management.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Cherlin Andrew J., Chase-Lansdale P. Lindsay, McRaeAmerican Christine | year = 1998 | title = Effects of Parental Divorce on Mental Health Throughout the Life Course | url = | journal = Sociological Review | volume = 63 | issue = 2| pages = 239–249 | doi=10.2307/2657325}}</ref>
+Despite changing family roles during adolescence, the home environment and parents are still important for the behaviors and choices of adolescents.<ref name = "trends">[http://www.childtrends.org/Files/FamilyEnvironmentRB.pdf ]{{dead link|date=August 2013}}</ref> Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risk behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting, and/or unprotected [[sexual intercourse]].<ref name = "trends" />
+In addition, parents influence the education of adolescence. A study conducted by Adalbjarnardottir and Blondal (2009) showed that adolescents at the age of 14 who identify their parents as authoritative figures are more likely to complete secondary education by the age of 22—as support and encouragement from an authoritative parent motivates the adolescence to complete schooling to avoid disappointing that parent.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Adalbjarnardottir S., Blondal K.S. | year = 2009 | title = Parenting practices and school dropout: a longitudinal study | url = | journal = Adolescence | volume = 44 | issue = | page = 176 }}</ref>
+====Peers====
+Peer groups are essential to social and general development. High quality friendships may enhance children's development regardless of the characteristics of those friends. As children begin to gain bonds with various people and create friendships with them, it later helps them when they are adolescent. This sets up the framework for adolescence and peer groups.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Berndt|first=Thomas J.|title=
+Friendship Quality and Social Development | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=February 2002|volume=11|issue=1|pages=7–10|doi=10.1111/1467-8721.00157}}</ref>
+[[Peer group]]s are especially important during adolescence, a period of development characterized by a dramatic increase in time spent with peers<ref>{{cite journal | author = Larson R., Richards M.|year = 1991 | title = Daily companionship in late childhood and early adolescence: Changing developmental contexts | url = | journal = Child Development | volume = 62 | issue = 2| pages = 284–300 | doi = 10.2307/1131003 | pmid = 2055123}}</ref> and a decrease in adult supervision.<ref>Brown, B. (1990). Peer groups. In S. Feldman & G. Elliot (Eds.), ''At the threshold: The developing adolescent'', pp.&nbsp;171–196. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref> Adolescents also associate with friends of the opposite sex much more than in childhood<ref>Brown, B. (2004). Adolescents' relationships with peers. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), ''Handbook of adolescent psychology''. New York: Wiley.</ref> and tend to identify with larger groups of peers based on shared characteristics.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Eder D | year = 1985 | title = The cycle of popularity: Interpersonal relations among female adolescence | url = | journal = Sociology of Education | volume = 58 | issue = 3| pages = 154–165 | doi = 10.2307/2112416 }}</ref> It is also common for adolescents to use friends as coping devices in different situations.<ref>How do Young Adolescents Cope With Social Problems? An Examination of Social Goals, Coping With Friends, and Social Adjustment. ''[[Journal of Early Adolescence]]''.</ref> A three factor structure of dealing with friends including avoidance, mastery, and nonchalance has shown that adolescent's use friends as coping devices with social stresses.
+Peer groups offer members the opportunity to develop social skills such as empathy, sharing, and leadership. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, such as on academic motivation and performance. But they can also have negative influences, like encouraging experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing through peer pressure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minddisorders.com/Ob-Ps/Peer-groups.html |title=Peer groups - children, therapy, adults, drug, people, skills, effect, women |publisher=Minddisorders.com |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18020830|year=2007|last1=Steinberg|first1=L|last2=Monahan|first2=KC|title=Age Differences in Resistance to Peer Influence|volume=43|issue=6|pages=1531–43|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531|pmc=2779518|journal=Developmental psychology}}</ref>
+During early adolescence, adolescents often associate in [[Adolescent cliques|cliques]], exclusive, single-sex groups of peers with whom they are particularly close. Despite the common notion that cliques are an inherently negative influence, they may help adolescents become socially acclimated and form a stronger sense of identity. Within a clique of highly athletic male-peers, for example, the clique may create a stronger sense of fidelity and competition. Cliques also have become somewhat as a "collective parent," i.e. telling the adolescents what to do and not to do.<ref>Grier, Peter. "The Heart of a High School: Peers As Collective Parent." ''Christian Science Monitor''. 24 Apr 2000: n.p. ''SIRS Researcher''. Web. 25 Oct 2010.</ref> Towards late adolescence, cliques often merge into mixed-sex groups as teenagers begin romantically engaging with one another.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Connolly J., Craig W., Goldberg A., Pepler D. | year = 2004 | title = Mixed-gender groups, dating, and romantic relationships in early adolescence | url = | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 185–207 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2004.01402003.x }}</ref> These small friend groups break down even further as socialization becomes more couple-oriented.
+While peers may facilitate social development for one another, they may also hinder it.  In Spanish teenagers, emotional (rather than solution-based) reaction to problems and emotional instability have been linked with physical aggression against peers.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Carlo G., Mestre M. V., McGinley M. M., Samper P., Tur A., Sandman D. | year = 2012 | title = The interplay of emotional instability, empathy, and coping on prosocial and aggressive behaviors | url = | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 53 | issue = 5| pages = 675–680 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2012.05.022}}</ref> Both [[Assault|physical]] and [[relational aggression|relational]] aggression are linked to a vast number of enduring psychological difficulties, especially depression, as is [[social rejection]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = French D., Conrad J. | year = 2001 | title = School dropout as predicted by peer rejection and antisocial behavior | url = | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 11 | issue = 3| pages = 225–244 | doi = 10.1111/1532-7795.00011 }}</ref> Because of this, bullied adolescents often develop problems that lead to further victimization.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Hodges Ed., Perry D. | year = 1999 | title = Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 76 | issue = 4| pages = 677–685 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.677 | pmid = 10234851 }}</ref> Bullied adolescents are both more likely to continued to be bullied and more likely to bully others in the future.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jose P. E., Kljakovic M., Scheib E., Notter O. | year = 2012 | title = The Joint Development of Traditional Bullying and Victimization With Cyber Bullying and Victimization in Adolescence | url = | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 22 | issue = 2| pages = 301–309 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00764.x }}</ref> However, this relationship is less stable in cases of [[cyberbullying]], a relatively new issue among adolescents.
+On a larger scale, adolescents often associate with ''crowds'', groups of individuals who share a common interest or activity. Often, crowd identities may be the basis for stereotyping young people, such as [[Jock (athlete)|jocks]] or [[nerd]]s. In large, multi-ethnic high schools, there are often ethnically-determined crowds as well.<ref>Brown, B., & Mounts, N. (1989, April). Peer groups structures in single versus multiethnic high schools. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the Society for Research on Adolescence, San Diego.</ref> While crowds are very influential during early and middle adolescence, they lose salience during high school as students identify more individually.<ref>Larkin, R.W. (1979). ''Suburban youth in cultural crisis''. New York: Oxford.</ref>
+====Romance and sexual activity====
+{{Main|Adolescent sexuality}}
+{{See also|Adolescent sexuality in the United States}}
+[[Intimate relationship|Romantic relationships]] tend to increase in prevalence throughout adolescence. By age 15, 53% of adolescents have had a romantic relationship that lasted at least one month over the course of the previous 18 months.<ref name="Carver K. 2003">Carver K., Joyner K., Udry J.R. (2003). National estimates of adolescent romantic relationships. In ''Adolescent Romantic Relationships and Sexual Behavior: Theory, Research, and Practical Implications'', 291–329.</ref> In a 2008 study conducted by [[YouGov]] for [[Channel 4]], 20% of 14−17-year-olds surveyed revealed that they had their first sexual experience at 13 or under in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="sex stats">{{cite web|url=http://sexperienceuk.channel4.com/teen-sex-survey|title=Teen Sex Survey|accessdate=2008-09-11|publisher=Channel 4|year=2008| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080912225248/http://sexperienceuk.channel4.com/teen-sex-survey| archivedate= 12 September 2008 <!--DASHBot-->| deadurl= no}}</ref> A 2002 American study found that those aged 15–44 reported that the average age of first sexual intercourse was 17.0 for males and 17.3 for females.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newstrategist.com/productdetails/Sex.SamplePgs.pdf |title=Seventeen Is the Average Age at First Sexual Intercourse, '&#39;American Sexual Behavior'&#39;, p.4-5 |format=PDF |accessdate=2012-09-15}}</ref> The typical duration of relationships increases throughout the teenage years as well. This constant increase in the likelihood of a long-term relationship can be explained by [[sexual maturity|sexual maturation]] and the development of cognitive skills necessary to maintain a romantic bond (e.g. caregiving, appropriate attachment), although these skills are not strongly developed until late adolescence.<ref>Allen, J., & Land, D. (1999). Attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), ''Handbook of attachment theory and research.'' New York: Guilford Press.</ref> Long-term relationships allow adolescents to gain the skills necessary for high-quality relationships later in life<ref>Madsen S., Collins W. A. (2005). Differential predictions of young adult romantic
+relationships from transitory vs. longer romantic experiences during adolescence. Presented at ''Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development'', Atlanta, GA.</ref> and develop feelings of self-worth. Overall, positive romantic relationships among adolescents can result in long-term benefits. High-quality romantic relationships are associated with higher commitment in early adulthood<ref>Seiffge-Krenke I., Lang J. (2002). Forming and maintaining romantic relations
+from early adolescence to young adulthood: evidence of a developmental sequence. Presented at ''Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence'', 19th, New Orleans, LA.</ref> and are positively associated with self-esteem, self-confidence, and social competence.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Pearce M. J., Boergers J., Prinstein M.J.|year = 2002 | title = Adolescent obesity, overt and relational peer victimization, and romantic relationships | url = | journal = Obesity Research | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 386–93 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2002.53 | pmid = 12006638 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Zimmer-Gembeck M.J., Siebenbruner J., Collins W.A. | year = 2004 | title = A prospective study of intraindividual and peer influences on adolescents' heterosexual romantic and sexual behavior | url = | journal = Archives of Sexual Behavior | volume = 33 | issue = 4| pages = 381–394 | doi = 10.1023/B:ASEB.0000028891.16654.2c | pmid = 15162084 }}</ref> For example, an adolescent with positive self-confidence is likely to consider themselves a more successful partner, whereas negative experiences may lead to low confidence as a romantic partner.<ref>Furman, W. & Shafer, L. (2003) The role of romantic relationships in adolescent development.http://www.du.edu/psychology/relationshipcenter/publications/furman_shaffer_2003.pdf</ref> Adolescents often date within their demographic in regards to race, ethnicity, popularity, and physical attractiveness.<ref>Simon V. A., Aikins J. W., Prinstein M. J. (2008). Romantic partner selection and socialization during early adolescence. ''Child Dev.'' In press.</ref> However, there are traits in which certain individuals, particularly adolescent girls, seek diversity. While most adolescents date people approximately their own age, boys typically date partners the same age or younger; girls typically date partners the same age or older.<ref name="Carver K. 2003"/>
+Some researchers are now focusing on learning about how adolescents view their own relationships and sexuality; they want to move away from a research point of view that focuses on the problems associated with adolescent sexuality.{{why|This sounds pov, in itself without an explanation|date=April 2014}} College Professor Lucia O'Sullivan and her colleagues found that there weren't any significant gender differences in the relationship events adolescent boys and girls from grades 7-12 reported.<ref name="O'Sullivan">{{cite journal | author = O'Sullivan L. F., Cheng M., Brooks-Gunn J., -1#Mantsun K. Harris | year = 2007 | title = I wanna hold your hand: The progression of social, romantic and sexual events in adolescent relationships | url = | journal = Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health | volume = 39 | issue = 2| pages = 100–107 | doi = 10.1363/3910007 | pmid = 17565623 }}</ref> Most teens said they had kissed their partners, held hands with them, thought of themselves as being a couple and told people they were in a relationship. This means that private thoughts about the relationship as well as public recognition of the relationship were both important to the adolescents in the sample. Sexual events (such as sexual touching, sexual intercourse) were less common than romantic events (holding hands) and social events (being with one's partner in a group setting). The researchers state that these results are important because the results focus on the more positive aspects of adolescents and their social and romantic interactions rather than focusing on sexual behavior and its consequences.<ref name="O'Sullivan" />
+Adolescence marks a time of sexual maturation, which manifests in social interactions as well. While adolescents may engage in [[casual sex|casual sexual encounters]] (often referred to as hookups), most sexual experience during this period of development takes place within romantic relationships.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Manning W., Longmore M., Giordano P. | year = 2000 | title = The relationship context of contraceptive use at first intercourse | url = | journal = Family Planning Perspectives | volume = 32 | issue = 3| pages = 104–110 | doi = 10.2307/2648158 | pmid = 10894255 }}</ref> Kissing, hand holding, and hugging signify satisfaction and commitment. Among young adolescents, "heavy" sexual activity, marked by genital stimulation, is often associated with violence, depression, and poor relationship quality.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Welsh D. P., Haugen P. T., Widman L., Darling N., Grello C. M. | year = 2005 | title = Kissing is good: a developmental investigation of sexuality in adolescent romantic couples | url = | journal = Sexuality Research and Social Policy | volume = 2 | issue = 4| pages = 32–41 | doi = 10.1525/srsp.2005.2.4.32 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Williams T., Connolly J., Cribbie R. | year = 2008 | title = Light and heavy heterosexual activities of young Canadian adolescents: normative patterns and differential predictors | url = | journal = Journal of Research on Adolescence | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 145–72 | doi = 10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00554.x }}</ref> This effect does not hold true for sexual activity in late adolescence that takes place within a romantic relationship.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Grello C. M., Welsh D. P., Harper MS, Dickson J. | year = 2003 | title = Dating and sexual relationship trajectories and adolescent functioning | url = | journal = Adolescent & Family Health | volume = 3 | issue = | pages = 103–12 }}</ref> Some research suggest that there are genetic causes of early sexual activity that are also risk factors for delinquency, suggesting that there is a group who are at risk for both early sexual activity and emotional distress. For old adolescents, though, sexual activity in the context of romantic relationships was actually correlated with lower levels of deviant behavior after controlling for genetic risks, as opposed to sex outside of a relationship (hook-ups)<ref>{{cite journal | author = Harden K., Mendle J. | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent sexual activity and the development of delinquent behavior: The role of relationship context | url = | journal = Journal Of Youth And Adolescence | volume = 40 | issue = 7| pages = 825–838 | doi = 10.1007/s10964-010-9601-y }}</ref>
+[[Dating abuse|Dating violence]] is fairly prevalent within adolescent relationships. When surveyed, 10-45% of adolescents reported having experienced physical violence in the context of a relationship while a quarter to a third of adolescents reported having experiencing psychological aggression. This reported aggression includes hitting, throwing things, or slaps, although most of this physical aggression does not result in a medical visit. Physical aggression in relationships tends to decline from high school through college and young adulthood. In heterosexual couples, there is no significant difference between the rates of male and female aggressors, unlike in adult relationships.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Halpern C., Oslak S., Young M., Martin S., Kupper L. | year = 2001 | title = Partner violence among adolescents in opposite-sex romantic: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health | url = | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 91 | issue = 10| pages = 1679–1685 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1679 | pmid = 11574335 | pmc = 1446854 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Halpern C., Young M., Waller M., Martin S., Kupper L. | year = 2004 | title = Prevalence of partner violence in same-sex romantic and sexual relationships in a national sample of adolescents | url = | journal = Journal of Adolescent Health | volume = 35 | issue = 2| pages = 124–131 | pmid = 15261641 | doi = 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.09.003 }}</ref><ref name="Collins2009">{{cite journal | author = Collins W. A., Welsh D. P., Furman W. | year = 2009 | title = Adolescent romantic relationships | url = | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 60 | issue = | pages = 631–652 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163459 | pmid = 19035830 }}</ref>
+In contemporary society, adolescents also face some risks as their sexuality begins to transform. While some of these, such as emotional distress (fear of abuse or exploitation) and [[sexually transmitted disease|sexually transmitted infections]]/diseases (STIs/STDs), including [[HIV/AIDS]], are not necessarily inherent to adolescence, others such as [[teenage pregnancy]] (through non-use or failure of contraceptives) are seen as social problems in most western societies. One in four sexually active teenagers will contract an STI.<ref name="Mulrine, A 2010">Mulrine, A."Risky Business." U.S. News & World Report. 27 May 2002: 42-49. SIRS Researcher. Web. 25 Oct 2010.</ref> Adolescents in the United States often chose "anything but intercourse" for sexual activity because they mistakenly believe it reduces the risk of STIs. Across the country, clinicians report rising diagnoses of [[Herpes simplex|herpes]] and [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV), which can cause genital warts, and is now thought to affect 15 percent of the teen population. Girls 15 to 19 have higher rates of gonorrhea than any other age group. One-quarter of all new HIV cases occur in those under the age of 21.<ref name="Mulrine, A 2010"/> Multrine also states in her article that according to a March survey by the [[Kaiser Family Foundation]], eighty-one percent of parents want schools to discuss the use of condoms and contraception with their children. They also believe students should be able to be tested for STIs. Furthermore, teachers want to address such topics with their students. But, although 9 in 10 sex education instructors across the country believe that students should be taught about contraceptives in school, over one quarter report receiving explicit instructions from school boards and administrators not to do so. According to anthropologist [[Margaret Mead]], the turmoil found in adolescence in Western society has a cultural rather than a physical cause; they reported that societies where young women engaged in free sexual activity had no such adolescent turmoil.
+==Culture==
+===Summary===
+[[File:Japan08.07 Shibuya Mybestfriends.jpg|thumb|Japanese ''[[gyaru]]'' girls in Tokyo]]
+There are certain characteristics of adolescent development that are more rooted in culture than in human biology or cognitive structures. [[Culture]] has been defined as the "symbolic and behavioral inheritance received from the past that provides a community framework for what is valued".<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=J.V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara.|isbn=1576072053|page=807|author2=Lerner, R.M., |author3= Finkelstein, J.}}</ref>  Culture is learned and socially shared, and it affects all aspects of an individual's life.<ref name="Lerner 2001 807">{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=807|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref>  Social responsibilities, sexual expression, and belief system development, for instance, are all things that are likely to vary by culture. Furthermore, distinguishing characteristics of youth, including dress, music and other uses of media, employment, art, food and beverage choices, recreation, and language, all constitute a [[youth culture]].<ref name="Lerner 2001 807"/>  For these reasons, culture is a prevalent and powerful presence in the lives of adolescents, and therefore we cannot fully understand today's adolescents without studying and understanding their culture.<ref name="Lerner 2001 807"/> However, "culture" should not be seen as synonymous with nation or ethnicity. Many cultures are present within any given country and racial or socioeconomic group. Furthermore, to avoid [[ethnocentrism]], researchers must be careful not to define the culture's role in adolescence in terms of their own cultural beliefs.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=271|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref>
+===Autonomy===
+The degree to which adolescents are perceived as autonomous beings varies greatly by culture, as do the behaviors that represent this emerging autonomy. Psychologists have identified three main types of [[autonomy]]: emotional autonomy, behavioral autonomy, and cognitive autonomy.<ref name="Lerner 2001 79">{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=79|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref>  Emotional autonomy is defined in terms of an adolescent's relationships with others, and often includes the development of more mature emotional connections with adults and peers.<ref name="Lerner 2001 79"/>  Behavioral autonomy encompasses an adolescent's developing ability to regulate his or her own behavior, to act on personal decisions, and to self-govern. Cultural differences are especially visible in this category because it concerns issues of dating, social time with peers, and time-management decisions.<ref name="Lerner 2001 79"/>  Cognitive autonomy describes the capacity for an adolescent to partake in processes of independent reasoning and decision-making without excessive reliance on social validation.<ref name="Lerner 2001 79"/>  Converging influences from adolescent cognitive development, expanding social relationships, an increasingly adultlike appearance, and the acceptance of more rights and responsibilities enhance feelings of autonomy for adolescents.<ref name="Lerner 2001 79"/>  Proper development of autonomy has been tied to good mental health, high self-esteem, self-motivated tendencies, positive self-concepts, and self-initiating and regulating behaviors.<ref name="Lerner 2001 79"/>  Furthermore, it has been found that adolescents' mental health is best when their feelings about autonomy match closely with those of their parents.<ref>Juang, L., Lerner, J. McKinney, J., & von Eye, A. (1999)</ref>
+A questionnaire called the teen timetable has been used to measure the age at which individuals believe adolescents should be able to engage in behaviors associated with autonomy.<ref name="Steinberg, L. 2011">Steinberg, L. (2011). "Adolescence", 9th ed. 292. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref> This questionnaire has been used to gauge differences in cultural perceptions of adolescent autonomy, finding, for instance, that White parents and adolescents tend to expect autonomy earlier than those of Asian descent.<ref name="Steinberg, L. 2011"/>  It is therefore clear that cultural differences exist in perceptions of adolescent autonomy, and such differences have implications for the lifestyles and development of adolescents. In sub-Saharan African youth, the notions of individuality and autonomy may not be useful in understanding adolescent development. Rather, African notions of youth and adolescent development are relational and interdependent. <ref name="The World's Youth">{{cite book|last1=Brown|first1=B. Bradford|last2=W. Larson|first2=Reed|last3=Saraswathi|first3=T.S.|first4=A. Bame|last4=Nsamenang|authorlink1=Adolescence in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Image Constructed from Africa's Triple Inheritance|title=The World's Youth: Adolescence in Eight Regions of the Globe|date=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=69|url=http://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/09108/sample/9780521809108ws.pdf|accessdate=11 September 2014|language=English|chapter=3}}</ref>
+===Social roles and responsibilities===
+[[File:Eleonora di Don Garzia di Toledo di Pietro de' Medici, by Alessandro Allori.jpg|thumb|180px|Portrait of a noble girl c. 1571]]
+The lifestyle of an adolescent in a given culture is profoundly shaped by the roles and responsibilities he or she is expected to assume. The extent to which an adolescent is expected to share family responsibilities is one large determining factor in normative adolescent behavior. For instance, adolescents in certain cultures are expected to contribute significantly to household chores and responsibilities.<ref name="Lerner 2001 115">{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=115|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref> Household chores are frequently divided into self-care tasks and family-care tasks. However, specific household responsibilities for adolescents may vary by culture, family type, and adolescent age.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=116|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref> Some research has shown that adolescent participation in family work and routines has a positive influence on the development of an adolescent's feelings of self-worth, care, and concern for others.<ref name="Lerner 2001 115"/>
+In addition to the sharing of household chores, certain cultures expect adolescents to share in their family's financial responsibilities. According to family economic and financial education specialists, adolescents develop sound money management skills through the practices of saving and spending money, as well as through planning ahead for future economic goals.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=44|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref> Differences between families in the distribution of financial responsibilities or provision of [[Allowance (money)|allowance]] may reflect various social background circumstances and intrafamilial processes, which are further influenced by cultural norms and values, as well as by the business sector and market economy of a given society.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|pages=44–45|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref> For instance, in many developing countries it is common for children to attend fewer years of formal schooling so that, when they reach adolescence, they can begin working.<ref>Larson, R., & Verma, S. (1999). How children and adolescents spend their time: Time budgest for locations, activities, and companionship. "American Journal of Community Psychology, 29", 565-597.</ref>
+While adolescence is a time frequently marked by participation in the workforce, the number of adolescents in the workforce is much lower now than in years past as a result of increased accessibility and perceived importance of formal higher education.<ref name="National Research Council 2005">National Research Council. (2005). "Growing up global". Washington, DC: National Academy Press.</ref> For example, half of all 16-year olds in China were employed in 1980, whereas less than one fourth of this same cohort were employed in 1990.<ref name="National Research Council 2005"/>
+Furthermore, the amount of time adolescents spend on work and leisure activities varies greatly by culture as a result of cultural norms and expectations, as well as various socioeconomic factors. American teenagers spend less time in school or working and more time on leisure activities—which include playing sports, socializing, and caring for their appearance—than do adolescents in many other countries.<ref name="Larson, R. 1990">{{cite journal | author = Larson R., Verma S. | year = 1999 | title = How children and adolescents spend time across the world:Work, play, and developmental opportunities | url = | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 125 | issue = 6| pages = 701–736 | pmid = 10589300 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.701}}</ref> These differences may be influenced by cultural values of education and the amount of responsibility adolescents are expected to assume in their family or community.
+Time management, financial roles, and social responsibilities of adolescents are therefore closely connected with the education sector and processes of career development for adolescents, as well as to cultural norms and social expectations. In many ways, adolescents' experiences with their assumed social roles and responsibilities determine the length and quality of their initial pathway into adult roles.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=101|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref>
+===Belief system development===
+Adolescence is frequently characterized by a transformation of an adolescent's understanding of the world, the rational direction towards a life course, and the active seeking of new ideas rather than the unquestioning acceptance of adult authority.<ref name="Lerner 2001 577">{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=577|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref>  An adolescent begins to develop a unique [[belief system]] through his or her interaction with social, familial, and cultural environments.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|pages=577–579|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref>  While organized religion is not necessarily a part of every adolescent's life experience, youth are still held responsible for forming a set of beliefs about themselves, the world around them, and whatever higher powers they may or may not believe in.<ref name="Lerner 2001 577"/> This process is often accompanied or aided by cultural traditions that intend to provide a meaningful transition to adulthood through a ceremony, ritual, confirmation, or rite of passage.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lerner|first=Jacqueline V.|title=Adolescence in America : an encyclopedia|year=2001|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|isbn=1576072053|page=578|author2=Rosenberg, Richard M. Lerner, editors |author3= Jordan Finkelstein, advisory editor |author4= foreword by Mark L.}}</ref>
+===Sexuality===
+Many cultures define the transition into adultlike sexuality by specific biological or social milestones in an adolescent's life. For example, [[menarche]] (the first menstrual period of a female), or [[semenarche]] (the first ejaculation of a male) are frequent sexual defining points for many cultures. In addition to biological factors, an adolescent's sexual socialization is highly dependent upon whether their culture takes a restrictive or permissive attitude toward teen or premarital sexual activity. Restrictive cultures overtly discourage sexual activity in unmarried adolescents or until an adolescent undergoes a formal rite of passage. These cultures may attempt to restrict sexual activity by separating males and females throughout their development, or through [[Public humiliation|public shaming]] and physical punishment when sexual activity does occur.<ref name="Ford, C. 1951">Ford, C. & Beach, F. (1951). "Patterns of sexual behavior". New York: Harper & Row.</ref> In less restrictive cultures, there is more tolerance for displays of adolescent sexuality, or of the interaction between males and females in public and private spaces. Less restrictive cultures may tolerate some aspects of adolescent sexuality, while objecting to other aspects. For instance, some cultures find teenage sexual activity acceptable but teenage pregnancy highly undesirable. Other cultures do not object to teenage sexual activity or [[teenage pregnancy]], as long as they occur after marriage.<ref name="ReferenceB">Steinberg, L. (2011). "Adolescence", 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.</ref> In permissive societies, overt sexual behavior among unmarried teens is perceived as acceptable, and is sometimes even encouraged.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Regardless of whether a culture is restrictive or permissive, there are likely to be discrepancies in how females versus males are expected to express their sexuality. Cultures vary in how overt this double standard is—in some it is legally inscribed, while in others it is communicated through social convention.<ref>Diamond, L., Savin- Williams, R. (2009). Adolescent Sexuality. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), "Handbook of adolescent psychology" (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp.&nbsp;479–523). New York: Wiley.</ref> Lesbian, gay, bi-sexual and transsexual youth face much discrimination through bullying from those unlike them and may find telling others that they are gay to be a traumatic experience<ref>Furlong, Andy (2013). "Youth Studies", New York, NY: Routledge.</ref> The range of sexual attitudes that a culture embraces could thus be seen to affect the beliefs, lifestyles, and societal perceptions of its adolescents.