Smooth newt: Difference between revisions
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[[Molecular phylogenetic]] analyses have shown that the smooth newt is distinct from its four close relatives – the Caucasian, Greek, Kosswig's, and Schmidtler's smooth newt – which were formerly considered subspecies (see section ''Taxonomy'' above). The relationships within this species complex have however not been fully resolved. Within the smooth newt itself, genetic groups do not completely match the currently accepted subspecies (''ampelensis'', ''meridionalis'', ''vulgaris''), described based on morphology.{{r|PabijanZielinski2017}} The five smooth newt species collectively were estimated to have [[Genetic divergence|diverged]] from the Carpathian newt around four to six [[million years ago]].{{r|ZielińskiNadachowska-Brzyska2016|PabijanZieliński2015}} |
[[Molecular phylogenetic]] analyses have shown that the smooth newt is distinct from its four close relatives – the Caucasian, Greek, Kosswig's, and Schmidtler's smooth newt – which were formerly considered subspecies (see section ''Taxonomy'' above). The relationships within this species complex have however not been fully resolved. Within the smooth newt itself, genetic groups do not completely match the currently accepted subspecies (''ampelensis'', ''meridionalis'', ''vulgaris''), described based on morphology.{{r|PabijanZielinski2017}} The five smooth newt species collectively were estimated to have [[Genetic divergence|diverged]] from the Carpathian newt around four to six [[million years ago]].{{r|ZielińskiNadachowska-Brzyska2016|PabijanZieliński2015}} |
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Genetic analyses have also demonstrated ongoing [[gene flow]] between the smooth newt and its relatives. Although the Carpathian newt is morphologically clearly different, [[hybridisation (biology)|hybridisation]] between the two species is frequent;{{r|Grosse2011|p=26}} it has been shown that smooth newt [[mitochondrial DNA]] has [[introgression|introgressed]] into and completely replaced that of the Carpathian newt populations.{{r|BabikBranicki2005}} Partial introgression also occurred from the smooth newt to the Greek smooth newt.{{r|PabijanZielinski2017}} These patterns are likely due to the range expansion and [[secondary contact]] of species after the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], which they likely survived in [[refugium (population biology)|refugia]] mainly in southern Europe{{r|BabikBranicki2005|PabijanZieliński2015}} The palmate newt, although often occurring in the same habitats, almost never hybridises with the smooth newt.{{r|Grosse2011|p=25}} Artificial crosses with even more distant species such as the alpine and northern crested newt were however successful in laboratory experiments.{{r|Grosse2011|p=29}} |
Genetic analyses have also demonstrated ongoing [[gene flow]] between the smooth newt and its relatives. Although the Carpathian newt is morphologically clearly different, [[hybridisation (biology)|hybridisation]] between the two species is frequent;{{r|Grosse2011|p=26}} it has been shown that smooth newt [[mitochondrial DNA]] has [[introgression|introgressed]] into and completely replaced that of the Carpathian newt populations.{{r|BabikBranicki2005}} Partial introgression also occurred from the smooth newt to the Greek smooth newt.{{r|PabijanZielinski2017}} These patterns are likely due to the range expansion and [[secondary contact]] of species after the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], which they likely survived in [[refugium (population biology)|refugia]] mainly in southern and eastern Europe.{{r|BabikBranicki2005|PabijanZieliński2015|SkorinovLitvinchuk2016}} The palmate newt, although often occurring in the same habitats, almost never hybridises with the smooth newt.{{r|Grosse2011|p=25}} Artificial crosses with even more distant species such as the alpine and northern crested newt were however successful in laboratory experiments.{{r|Grosse2011|p=29}} |
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==Description== |
==Description== |
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===General characteristics=== |
===General characteristics=== |
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Adult males of the smooth newt reach around {{cvt|9–11|cm|in|abbr=on}} head-to-tail length and are thus slightly larger than the females, which reach {{cvt|8–9.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The head is longer than it is wide, with 2–3 longitudinal grooves, and the elongated snout is blunt in the male and rounded in the female. Outside the breeding season, both sexes are yellow-brown, brown or olive-brown. The male has dark, round spots, while the females have smaller spots which sometimes form two or more irregular lines along the back. Males have an orange strip on the tail underside, and the throat and belly in males are orange to white with small dark, rounded spots (these are lighter with smaller spots in the female).{{r|1=Grosse2011|p1=80|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=233–234}} |
Adult males of the smooth newt reach around {{cvt|9–11|cm|in|abbr=on}} head-to-tail length and are thus slightly larger than the females, which reach {{cvt|8–9.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}. The head is longer than it is wide, with 2–3 longitudinal grooves, and the elongated snout is blunt in the male and rounded in the female. Outside the breeding season, both sexes are yellow-brown, brown or olive-brown. The male has dark, round spots, while the females have smaller spots which sometimes form two or more irregular lines along the back. Males have an orange strip on the tail underside, and the throat and belly in males are orange to white with small dark, rounded spots (these are lighter with smaller spots in the female).{{r|1=Grosse2011|p1=80|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=233–234}} [[Albinistic]] individuals have been observed occasionally.{{r|Modesti2011}} |
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The body weight of adults varies between 0.3 and 5.2 g, and decreases during the breeding season. Size and colour vary with environment, and the newts tend to be smaller in northern latitudes. The skin is velvety and water-repellent on land but smooth during the aquatic phase; it contains mucus and toxin glands and its upper layer is [[moulting|shed off]] regularly. [[Albinistic]] and [[leucistic]] individuals have been described.{{r|Grosse2011|p=80-93}} |
The body weight of adults varies between 0.3 and 5.2 g, and decreases during the breeding season. Size and colour vary with environment, and the newts tend to be smaller in northern latitudes. The skin is velvety and water-repellent on land but smooth during the aquatic phase; it contains mucus and toxin glands and its upper layer is [[moulting|shed off]] regularly. [[Albinistic]] and [[leucistic]] individuals have been described.{{r|Grosse2011|p=80-93}} |
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The smooth newt has been described as "the most ubiquitous and widely distributed newt of the Old World".{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=237}} The nominate subspecies, ''L. v. vulgaris'', is most widespread and ranges natively from [[Ireland]] (where the smooth newt is the only newt species) and [[Great Britain]] in the west to [[Siberia]] and northern Kazakhstan in the east. In the north it reaches central [[Fennoscandia]], and its southern limit is central France, northern Italy, the central [[Balkans]] and the dry [[Eurasian steppe]] of Ukraine and Russia.{{r|1=Kuzmin1999|2=WielstraCanestrelli2018|3=Sparreboom2014|p3=234–238|4=Grosse2011|p4=42–44}} The subspecies ''L. v. ampelensis'' only occurs in the Carpathians of Ukraine and the [[Danube delta]] of northern Romania, and ''L. v. meridionalis'' in the northern half of Italy, southern Switzerland, Slovenia and Croatia.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=234–235}} |
The smooth newt has been described as "the most ubiquitous and widely distributed newt of the Old World".{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=237}} The nominate subspecies, ''L. v. vulgaris'', is most widespread and ranges natively from [[Ireland]] (where the smooth newt is the only newt species) and [[Great Britain]] in the west to [[Siberia]] and northern Kazakhstan in the east. In the north it reaches central [[Fennoscandia]], and its southern limit is central France, northern Italy, the central [[Balkans]] and the dry [[Eurasian steppe]] of Ukraine and Russia.{{r|1=Kuzmin1999|2=WielstraCanestrelli2018|3=Sparreboom2014|p3=234–238|4=Grosse2011|p4=42–44}} The subspecies ''L. v. ampelensis'' only occurs in the Carpathians of Ukraine and the [[Danube delta]] of northern Romania, and ''L. v. meridionalis'' in the northern half of Italy, southern Switzerland, Slovenia and Croatia.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=234–235}} |
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In the [[Carpathians]], the smooth newt generally prefers lower elevations than the Carpathian newt. In the Balkans, the precise contact zones with the Greek smooth newt and Schmidtler's smooth newt are not yet clear.{{r|WielstraCanestrelli2018}} |
In the [[Carpathians]], the smooth newt generally prefers lower elevations than the Carpathian newt. In the Balkans, the precise contact zones with the Greek smooth newt and Schmidtler's smooth newt are not yet clear.{{r|WielstraCanestrelli2018}} In central Italy, it was found that the range of the smooth newt relative to that of the neighbouring [[Italian newt]] (''L. italicus'') was determined by climate.{{r|IannellaCerasoli2017}} |
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===Introduced range=== |
===Introduced range=== |
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The nominate subspecies, ''L. v. vulgaris'', has been [[introduced species|introduced]] to Australia, which has no native [[salamander]] species. The smooth newt was available in the Australian [[pet trade]] until 1997, when it was declared a "controlled pest animal" because of the risk of introduction. The first record in the wild was made near [[Melbourne]] in 2011, and larvae were later found, indicating successful reproduction. Negative impacts on the native fauna are feared, including predation on and competition with native [[frog]]s and freshwater [[invertebrates]], toxicity, and disease spread. The smooth newt could spread further in south-eastern Australia, where wide areas have a suitable climate.{{r|TingleyWeeks2014}} |
The nominate subspecies, ''L. v. vulgaris'', has been [[introduced species|introduced]] to Australia, which has no native [[salamander]] species. The smooth newt was available in the Australian [[pet trade]] until 1997, when it was declared a "controlled pest animal" because of the risk of introduction. The first record in the wild was made near [[Melbourne]] in 2011, and larvae were later found, indicating successful reproduction. Negative impacts on the native fauna are feared, including predation on and competition with native [[frog]]s and freshwater [[invertebrates]], toxicity, and disease spread. The smooth newt could spread further in south-eastern Australia, where wide areas have a suitable climate.{{r|TingleyWeeks2014}} |
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Within Europe, the subspecies ''L. v. meridionalis'' was introduced north of the Alps near [[Geneva]], where it hybridises with the native ''L. v. vulgaris''.{{r|DubeyLavanchy2019}} |
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==Habitats== |
==Habitats== |
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==Lifecycle and behaviour== |
==Lifecycle and behaviour== |
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Smooth newts live on land during most of the year and are mainly [[nocturnal]]. They also usually [[hibernate]] on land, often in congregations of several newts in shelters such as under logs or in burrows. The [[eft]]s turn into mature adults at two to three years, and an overall age of 6–14 years can be reached in the wild.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238}} |
Smooth newts live on land during most of the year and are mainly [[nocturnal]]. They also usually [[hibernate]] on land, often in congregations of several newts in shelters such as under logs or in burrows (but they can be active during mild weather{{r|Kaczmarek2018}}). The [[eft]]s turn into mature adults at two to three years, and an overall age of 6–14 years can be reached in the wild.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238}} The newts recognise familiar territory using smell and visual cues, but could not orient themselves in experiments when they were transported far away from the home range.{{r|SinschKirst2015}} |
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===Reproduction=== |
===Reproduction=== |
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[[Paedomorphism]], where adults stay aquatic and retain their gills and skin seams or only resorb them partially, occurs regularly but only in a small proportion of individuals. It does not appear to be determined genetically but favoured by cold water, a low density of individuals and abundant aquatic prey. Wild paedomorphic individuals often metamorphosed when they were transferred into an [[aquarium]].{{r|Grosse2011|p=192-193}} |
[[Paedomorphism]], where adults stay aquatic and retain their gills and skin seams or only resorb them partially, occurs regularly but only in a small proportion of individuals. It does not appear to be determined genetically but favoured by cold water, a low density of individuals and abundant aquatic prey. Wild paedomorphic individuals often metamorphosed when they were transferred into an [[aquarium]].{{r|Grosse2011|p=192-193}} |
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===Diet and |
===Diet, predators and parasites=== |
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[[File:Ringelnatter, Natrix natrix mit Teichmolch edit.JPG |thumb |right |alt=Close-up view of snake eating a newt | [[Grass snake]] eating a smooth newt]] |
[[File:Ringelnatter, Natrix natrix mit Teichmolch edit.JPG |thumb |right |alt=Close-up view of snake eating a newt | [[Grass snake]] eating a smooth newt]] |
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Smooth newts, including the larvae, are unselective carnivores, feeding mainly on diverse [[invertebrates]] such as earthworms, snails or insects, or smaller [[plankton]]. [[Cannibalism]] also occurs, mainly by preying on eggs of its own species. Various predators eat smooth newts, including waterbirds, snakes and frogs, but also larger newts such as the northern crested newt.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238}} |
Smooth newts, including the larvae, are unselective carnivores, feeding mainly on diverse [[invertebrates]] such as earthworms, snails or insects, or smaller [[plankton]]. [[Cannibalism]] also occurs, mainly by preying on eggs of its own species. Various predators eat smooth newts, including waterbirds, snakes and frogs, but also larger newts such as the northern crested newt.{{r|Sparreboom2014|p=238}} |
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Various pathogens and parasites have been found to infect smooth newts, including [[ranavirus]]es,{{r|SaucedoGarner2019}} a [[picornavirus]],{{r|PankovicsBoros2016}}, various [[protozoans]],{{r|Grosse2011|p=164}} [[trematodes]]{{r|1=CaffaraBruni2013|2=Grosse2011|p2=164}} (of which ''[[Parastrigea robusta]]'' was found to cause the local decline of a population{{r|SinschHilgendorf2018}}) and at least 31 species of [[helminth]]s.{{r|SinschHeneberg2018}} |
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==Threats and conservation== |
==Threats and conservation== |
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The smooth newt is common over much of its range.{{r|1=iucn|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=237}} The [[IUCN]], in 2008, assessed its threat status as [[Least Concern]] and found no general decline in populations.{{r|iucn}} However, this assessment included subspecies now recognised as separate species (see section ''Taxonomy'' above) and needs updating.{{r|WielstraCanestrelli2018}} Despite the overall low concern, the smooth newt is listed in some national red lists, e.g. in Switzerland, the Czech Republic, and the Netherlands.{{r|Grosse2011|p=196}} Like all amphibians, it is also listed as protected species in the [[Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Berne Convention]] (Appendix III).{{r|bern-convention}} Disturbance, capture, killing and trade are prohibited in Ireland under the [[Wildlife Act 1976]],{{r|Ireland}} and trade in the UK under the [[Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981]].{{r|UK}} |
The smooth newt is common over much of its range.{{r|1=iucn|2=Sparreboom2014|p2=237}} The [[IUCN]], in 2008, assessed its threat status as [[Least Concern]] and found no general decline in populations.{{r|iucn}} However, this assessment included subspecies now recognised as separate species (see section ''Taxonomy'' above) and needs updating.{{r|WielstraCanestrelli2018}} Despite the overall low concern, the smooth newt is listed in some national red lists, e.g. in Switzerland, the Czech Republic, and the Netherlands.{{r|Grosse2011|p=196}} Like all amphibians, it is also listed as protected species in the [[Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Berne Convention]] (Appendix III).{{r|bern-convention}} Disturbance, capture, killing and trade are prohibited in Ireland under the [[Wildlife Act 1976]],{{r|Ireland}} and trade in the UK under the [[Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981]].{{r|UK}} |
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Threats to smooth newts are similar to those affecting other amphibians. They include especially the loss of breeding ponds through [[habitat destruction|destruction]] or introduction of fish, and the [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] of population through roads.{{r|Grosse2011|p=196-197}} Secondary habitats can help sustain the species, e.g. former [[gravel pit]]s or [[quarries]] left open.{{r|Grosse2011|p=204-205}} Garden ponds are readily colonised if they are sun-exposed, have abundant water plants, no fish, and hiding structures |
Threats to smooth newts are similar to those affecting other amphibians. They include especially the loss of breeding ponds through [[habitat destruction|destruction]] or introduction of fish, and the [[habitat fragmentation|fragmentation]] of population through roads.{{r|Grosse2011|p=196-197}} Secondary habitats can help sustain the species, e.g. former [[gravel pit]]s or [[quarries]] left open.{{r|Grosse2011|p=204-205}} The value of artificial water bodies as habitat can be improved when nearby hiding structures like stones or wood are added on land.{{r|MulkeenGibson-Brabazon2017}} Garden ponds are readily colonised if they are sun-exposed, have abundant water plants, no fish, and nearby hiding structures.{{r|Grosse2011|p=206-218}} |
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Artifical hibernation sites ("newt hotels") were readily used in a study in Norway, especially by juveniles.{{r|DervoMuseth2018}} |
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To track individuals and monitor populations, researchers have often amputated [[phalanges]] of fingers and toes but these re-grow quickly; a safer and less harmful alternative is recording the individual belly patterns through photography.{{r|Grosse2011|p=223-224}} Researchers have also developed genetic methods based on [[microsatellite]] distribution to assess patterns of [[genetic diversity]].{{r|BuonoGalliani2018}} |
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==Captivity== |
==Captivity== |
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<ref name="bern-convention">{{cite web |title=Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats |year=1979 |publisher=Council of Europe |location=Bern |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/104.htm |accessdate=2020-11-01}}</ref> |
<ref name="bern-convention">{{cite web |title=Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats |year=1979 |publisher=Council of Europe |location=Bern |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/104.htm |accessdate=2020-11-01}}</ref> |
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<ref name="BuonoGalliani2018">{{cite journal|last1=Buono|first1=Vincenzo|last2=Galliani|first2=Giorgia|last3=Mancini|first3=Emiliano|last4=Davoli|first4=Francesca|last5=Mengoni|first5=Chiara|last6=Mucci|first6=Nadia|last7=Vignoli|first7=Leonardo |display-authors=3 |title=An improved microsatellite panel to assess genetic variability of the Italian smooth newt (''Lissotriton vulgaris meridionalis'')|journal=Journal of Genetics|volume=97|issue=2|year=2018|pages=569–573|issn=0022-1333|doi=10.1007/s12041-018-0934-8}}</ref> |
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<ref name="CaffaraBruni2013">{{cite journal|last1=Caffara|first1=M.|last2=Bruni|first2=G.|last3=Paoletti|first3=C.|last4=Gustinelli|first4=A.|last5=Fioravanti|first5=M.L.|title=Metacercariae of ''Clinostomum complanatum'' (Trematoda: Digenea) in European newts ''Triturus carnifex'' and ''Lissotriton vulgaris'' (Caudata: Salamandridae)|journal=Journal of Helminthology|volume=88|issue=3|year=2013|pages=278–285|issn=0022-149X|doi=10.1017/S0022149X13000151}}</ref> |
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<ref name="DervoMuseth2018">{{cite journal|last1=Dervo|first1=Børre|last2=Museth|first2=Jon|last3=Skurdal|first3=Jostein|title=Assessing the use of artificial hibernacula by the great crested newt (''Triturus cristatus'') and smooth newt (''Lissotriton vulgaris'') in cold climate in southeast Norway|journal=Diversity|volume=10|issue=3|year=2018|pages=56|issn=1424-2818|doi=10.3390/d10030056}}</ref> |
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<ref name="DubeyLavanchy2019">{{cite journal|last1=Dubey|first1=Sylvain|last2=Lavanchy|first2=Guillaume|last3=Thiébaud|first3=Jacques|last4=Dufresnes|first4=Christophe|title=Herps without borders: a new newt case and a review of transalpine alien introductions in western Europe|journal=Amphibia-Reptilia|volume=40|issue=1|year=2019|pages=13–27|issn=0173-5373|doi=10.1163/15685381-20181028}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Frost2020">{{ Cite document |last=Frost |first=D.R. | year = 2020 | title = ''Lissotriton vulgaris'' (Linnaeus, 1758). Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.1 |url = https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/Amphibia/Caudata/Salamandridae/Pleurodelinae/Lissotriton/Lissotriton-vulgaris | accessdate = 18 April 2020 | publisher = American Museum of Natural History | location = New York, USA | doi = 10.5531/db.vz.0001}}</ref> |
<ref name="Frost2020">{{ Cite document |last=Frost |first=D.R. | year = 2020 | title = ''Lissotriton vulgaris'' (Linnaeus, 1758). Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.1 |url = https://amphibiansoftheworld.amnh.org/Amphibia/Caudata/Salamandridae/Pleurodelinae/Lissotriton/Lissotriton-vulgaris | accessdate = 18 April 2020 | publisher = American Museum of Natural History | location = New York, USA | doi = 10.5531/db.vz.0001}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Grosse2011">{{cite book | last = Große | first = W-R. |year = 2011 | title = Der Teichmolch | series = Die neue Brehm-Bücherei | volume = 117 | isbn = 978-3-89432-476-6 | issn = 0138-1423 | publisher = VerlagsKG Wolf | location = Magdeburg, Germany | language = German | trans-title = The smooth newt }}</ref> |
<ref name="Grosse2011">{{cite book | last = Große | first = W-R. |year = 2011 | title = Der Teichmolch | series = Die neue Brehm-Bücherei | volume = 117 | isbn = 978-3-89432-476-6 | issn = 0138-1423 | publisher = VerlagsKG Wolf | location = Magdeburg, Germany | language = German | trans-title = The smooth newt }}</ref> |
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<ref name="IannellaCerasoli2017">{{cite journal|last1=Iannella|first1=Mattia|last2=Cerasoli|first2=Francesco|last3=Biondi|first3=Maurizio|title=Unraveling climate influences on the distribution of the parapatric newts ''Lissotriton vulgaris meridionalis'' and ''L. italicus'' |journal=Frontiers in Zoology|volume=14|issue=1|year=2017|issn=1742-9994|doi=10.1186/s12983-017-0239-4}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Ireland">{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=B. |last2=Cummins |first2=S. |last3=Fay |first3=L. |last4=Jeffrey |first4=R. |last5=Kelly |first5=S. |last6=Kingston |first6=N. |last7=Lockhart |first7=N. |last8=Marnell |first8=F. |last9=Tierney |first9=D. |last10=Jackson |first10=M.W. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=Checklists of protected and rare species in Ireland |publisher=National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Culture, Heritage and the Gaeltacht |issn=1393-6670 |journal=Irish Wildlife Manuals |volume=116 |url=https://www.npws.ie/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/IWM%20116%20Checklists%20Protected%20and%20Threatened%20Species%202019.pdf |access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> |
<ref name="Ireland">{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=B. |last2=Cummins |first2=S. |last3=Fay |first3=L. |last4=Jeffrey |first4=R. |last5=Kelly |first5=S. |last6=Kingston |first6=N. |last7=Lockhart |first7=N. |last8=Marnell |first8=F. |last9=Tierney |first9=D. |last10=Jackson |first10=M.W. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=Checklists of protected and rare species in Ireland |publisher=National Parks and Wildlife Service, Department of Culture, Heritage and the Gaeltacht |issn=1393-6670 |journal=Irish Wildlife Manuals |volume=116 |url=https://www.npws.ie/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/IWM%20116%20Checklists%20Protected%20and%20Threatened%20Species%202019.pdf |access-date=2020-11-01}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Jehle2007">{{cite journal |last1=Jehle |first1=R. |last2=Sztatecsny |first2=M. |last3=Wolf|first3=J.B.W |last4=Whitlock |first4=A. |last5=Hödl |first5=W. |last6=Burke |first6=T. |display-authors=3 |title=Genetic dissimilarity predicts paternity in the smooth newt (''Lissotriton vulgaris'') |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=526–528 |year=2007 |pmid=17638673 |pmc=2391198 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0311}}</ref> |
<ref name="Jehle2007">{{cite journal |last1=Jehle |first1=R. |last2=Sztatecsny |first2=M. |last3=Wolf|first3=J.B.W |last4=Whitlock |first4=A. |last5=Hödl |first5=W. |last6=Burke |first6=T. |display-authors=3 |title=Genetic dissimilarity predicts paternity in the smooth newt (''Lissotriton vulgaris'') |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=526–528 |year=2007 |pmid=17638673 |pmc=2391198 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0311}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Kaczmarek2018">{{cite web |last1=Kaczmarek |first1=J. M. |last2=Piasecka |first2=M. | last3=Kaczmarski |first3=M. |year=2018 |title=Winter activity of the smooth newt ''Lissotriton vulgaris'' in Central Europe |journal=The Herpetological Bulletin |volume=144 |pages=21-22 |issn=14730928 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325848146_Winter_activity_of_the_smooth_newt_Lissotriton_vulgaris_in_Central_Europe/link/5c24d399299bf12be39d284c/download}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Kuzmin1999">{{cite web |last=Kuzmin |first=S. |title=AmphibiaWeb – ''Lissotriton vulgaris'' |year=1999 |url=https://amphibiaweb.org/species/4303 |accessdate=26 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419212232/https://amphibiaweb.org/species/4303 |archive-date=19 April 2019}}</ref> |
<ref name="Kuzmin1999">{{cite web |last=Kuzmin |first=S. |title=AmphibiaWeb – ''Lissotriton vulgaris'' |year=1999 |url=https://amphibiaweb.org/species/4303 |accessdate=26 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419212232/https://amphibiaweb.org/species/4303 |archive-date=19 April 2019}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Linnaeus1767">{{cite book |last1=Linnaeus |first1=C. |year=1767 |title=Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis |language=Latin |edition=10 |publisher=L. Salvii |location=Stockholm, Sweden |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.37256}}</ref> |
<ref name="Linnaeus1767">{{cite book |last1=Linnaeus |first1=C. |year=1767 |title=Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, Locis |language=Latin |edition=10 |publisher=L. Salvii |location=Stockholm, Sweden |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.37256}}</ref> |
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Revision as of 11:06, 13 December 2020
Smooth newt | |
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Male during land phase | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Amphibia |
Order: | Urodela |
Family: | Salamandridae |
Genus: | Lissotriton |
Species: | L. vulgaris
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Binomial name | |
Lissotriton vulgaris (Linnaeus, 1758)
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Subspecies[2] | |
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Synonyms | |
Over 60,[3] including:
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The smooth newt, northern smooth newt or common newt (Lissotriton vulgaris) is a species of newt. It is widespread in much of Eurasia, from the British Isles to Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, and introduced to Australia. Individuals are brown with an orange to white, spotted underside and reach a total length of 8–11 cm (3.1–4.3 in), with males being larger than females. The dry and velvety skin becomes smooth during the aquatic phase. Breeding males develop a more vivid colour pattern and a conspicuous skin seam (crest) on their back.
Originally described by Carl Linnaeus as a lizard, the smooth newt went by different genus names before the current classification in Lissotriton was adopted. Three subspecies are currently accepted. Four former subspecies, all with more restricted ranges, are now classified as separate species, as they are distinct in appearance and genetically: the Caucasian, the Greek, Kosswig's and Schmidtler's smooth newt. Together with the smooth newt and the Carpathian newt, they form a complex of closely related species, some of which hybridise.
Smooth newts live on land for most of the year, where they are mostly nocturnal and hide during the day. They can adapt to a wide range of natural or semi-natural habitats, from forests over field edges to parks and gardens. The newts feed mainly on various invertebrates such as insects or earthworms and are themselves eaten by predators such as fish, birds or snakes. Between spring and summer, they breed in ponds or similar water bodies. Males court females with a ritualised underwater display. Females then lay their eggs on water plants, and larvae hatch after 10 to 20 days. They develop over around three months before metamorphosing into terrestrial juvenile efts. Maturity is reached after two to three years, and adults can reach an age of up to 14 years.
The smooth newt is common over much of its range and classified as Least Concern species. It is however negatively affected by habitat destruction and fragmentation and the introduction of fish. Like other European amphibians, it is listed in the Berne Convention as a protected species.
Taxonomy
Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus described the smooth newt in 1758 as Lacerta vulgaris, placing it in the same genus as the green lizards.[4]: 206 It was later re-described under several different species and genus names, including Triton, Molge, Salamandra and Lissotriton, and most recently, it was included in the genus Triturus, along with most European newts.[3] This genus however was found to be polyphyletic, containing several unrelated lineages,[5][6][7] and the small-bodied newts, including the smooth newt, were therefore split off as separate genus in 2004 by García-París and colleagues.[8]: 233 They used the name Lissotriton, introduced by the English zoologist Thomas Bell in 1839 with the smooth newt as type species[9]: 132 but then considered a synonym of Triturus.[3] "Lissotriton" is a combination of Greek λισσός, lissós for "smooth" and the name of Triton, the ancient Greek god of the sea, while the species epithet vulgaris means "common" in Latin.[10]: 17
Three subspecies are accepted by Pabijan, Wielstra and colleagues: L. v. vulgaris, L. v. ampelensis and L. v. meridionalis.[2][11] These authors, followed by Amphibian Species of the World,[3] recognise four former subspecies from southern Europe and west Asia as separate species, as they are morphologically and genetically distinct: the Greek smooth newt (L. graecus), Kosswig's smooth newt (L. kosswigi), the Caucasian smooth newt (L. lantzi) and Schmidtler's smooth newt (L. schmidtleri). The five smooth newt species and the Carpathian newt (L. montadoni), which is their sister species, have collectively been referred to as the "smooth newt species complex".[11]
To distinguish the smooth newt from its close relatives, the English name "northern smooth newt" has been suggested.[11] Other common names that have been used in the literature include: common newt, great water-newt, common water-newt, warty eft, water eft, common smooth newt, small newt, small eft, small evet, and brown eft.[3]
Evolution
Molecular phylogenetic analyses have shown that the smooth newt is distinct from its four close relatives – the Caucasian, Greek, Kosswig's, and Schmidtler's smooth newt – which were formerly considered subspecies (see section Taxonomy above). The relationships within this species complex have however not been fully resolved. Within the smooth newt itself, genetic groups do not completely match the currently accepted subspecies (ampelensis, meridionalis, vulgaris), described based on morphology.[2] The five smooth newt species collectively were estimated to have diverged from the Carpathian newt around four to six million years ago.[12][13]
Genetic analyses have also demonstrated ongoing gene flow between the smooth newt and its relatives. Although the Carpathian newt is morphologically clearly different, hybridisation between the two species is frequent;[10]: 26 it has been shown that smooth newt mitochondrial DNA has introgressed into and completely replaced that of the Carpathian newt populations.[14] Partial introgression also occurred from the smooth newt to the Greek smooth newt.[2] These patterns are likely due to the range expansion and secondary contact of species after the Last Glacial Maximum, which they likely survived in refugia mainly in southern and eastern Europe.[14][13][15] The palmate newt, although often occurring in the same habitats, almost never hybridises with the smooth newt.[10]: 25 Artificial crosses with even more distant species such as the alpine and northern crested newt were however successful in laboratory experiments.[10]: 29
Description
![Newt held between fingers, exposing its orange–white, black-spotted underside](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Schiermonnikoog_-_Kleine_watersalamander_%28Lissotriton_vulgaris%29_cropped.jpg/220px-Schiermonnikoog_-_Kleine_watersalamander_%28Lissotriton_vulgaris%29_cropped.jpg)
![Swimming male newt, with well developed crest and bright colours](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Teichmolch_maennchen_web.jpg/220px-Teichmolch_maennchen_web.jpg)
![Female newt under water, sitting on leaf](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Triturus_vulgaris.jpg/220px-Triturus_vulgaris.jpg)
General characteristics
Adult males of the smooth newt reach around 9–11 cm (3.5–4.3 in) head-to-tail length and are thus slightly larger than the females, which reach 8–9.5 cm (3.1–3.7 in). The head is longer than it is wide, with 2–3 longitudinal grooves, and the elongated snout is blunt in the male and rounded in the female. Outside the breeding season, both sexes are yellow-brown, brown or olive-brown. The male has dark, round spots, while the females have smaller spots which sometimes form two or more irregular lines along the back. Males have an orange strip on the tail underside, and the throat and belly in males are orange to white with small dark, rounded spots (these are lighter with smaller spots in the female).[10]: 80 [16]: 233–234 Albinistic individuals have been observed occasionally.[17]
The body weight of adults varies between 0.3 and 5.2 g, and decreases during the breeding season. Size and colour vary with environment, and the newts tend to be smaller in northern latitudes. The skin is velvety and water-repellent on land but smooth during the aquatic phase; it contains mucus and toxin glands and its upper layer is shed off regularly. Albinistic and leucistic individuals have been described.[10]: 80-93
The smooth newt is diploid and has 24 chromosomes.[10]: 107
Breeding characteristics
During the aquatic breeding season, males develop a skin seam or crest, which runs uninterrupted along the back and the tail. It is 1–1.5 mm high at mid-body, but higher along the tail. The tail also has a lower fin, and its end is pointed. The cloaca of breeding males is swollen, round and dark-coloured. The hindfeet have more or less developed toe flaps, depending on the subspecies. Colours in general are more vivid than during the land phase. The dark spots grow larger, and the crest often has vertical dark and bright bands. The lower edge of the tail is red with a silver-blue flash and black spots. Females only develop low, straight tail fins but no crest or toe flaps, and are more drably coloured.[18]: 26 [16]: 233–234
Subspecies differ slightly in male secondary characteristics: L. v. ampelensis has strongly developed toe flaps, its tail tapers into a fine thread (but not a distinct filament), and the body is slightly square in cross-section. L. v. meridionalis also has toe flaps and a pointed tail, its crest is smooth-edged, and its body is square-shaped. In the nominate subspecies, L. v. vulgaris, the crest is clearly denticulated, toe flaps are only weakly developed and the body is round.[16]: 234–236
Larvae
The aquatic larvae are 6.5–7 mm long and yellow-brown with two longitudinal stripes at hatching. They initially have, in addition to their gills, only two balancers at the sides of the head, short appendages for attaching to plants which get resorbed within a few days.[16]: 237 As in all salamanders, forelegs develop before the hindlegs. The colour becomes a more cryptic, darkly marbled yellow to brown in the growing larvae. Larvae are very slender and similar to the palmate newt (L. helveticus). They develop a skin seam from the neck to the pointed tail; the tail is as long as the head and trunk. The larvae grow to 3–4.5 cm (1.2–1.8 in) just before metamorphosis.[10]: 188-192
Similar species
The smooth newt resembles the other, less widespread Lissotriton species. It can be confused especially with the closely related "smooth newt complex" species (marked with * in the table below) and the more distant palmate newt, which often occurs in the same area.[11][10]: 25 Females are especially difficult to tell apart, as distinguishing features are mainly observed in the males at breeding season.[10]: 19–41 [16]: 225–235
Species | Distribution | Breeding male characteristics | Other | |||
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Body shape | Dorsal crest | Toe flaps (hind feet) | Tail end | |||
Smooth newt* L. vulgaris |
widespread from British Isles to Central Asia | round to square (depending on subspecies) | smooth or denticulated (depending on subspecies) | weakly to well developed (depending on subspecies) | pointed to elongated, no filament | |
Bosca's newt L. boscai |
West Iberian peninsula | slightly square | none | none | short filament | belly with some dark spots, especially at sides |
Carpathian newt* L. montandoni |
Carpathians | square | very low, smooth-edged | weakly developed | blunt, with filament | belly unspotted |
Caucasian smooth newt* L. lantzi |
Caucasus | slightly square | high (>1 mm at mid-body), denticulated (almost spine-shaped) | moderately developed | pointed, but no filament | |
Greek smooth newt* L. graecus |
Southern Balkans | square | low (<1 mm at mid-body), smooth-edged | well developed | long filament | lower tail fin unspotted |
Italian newt L. italicus |
Southern Italy | slightly square | none | none | pointed, no filament | very small, 4.5–7.5 cm (1.8–3.0 in); throat with few or no spots; golden-yellow patch behind eyes in both sexes |
Kosswig's smooth newt* L. kosswigi |
Northern Anatolia | square | low (<1 mm at mid-body) but higher at tail base | strongly developed | long filament | |
Palmate newt L. helveticus |
Western Europe | square | low, smooth-edged | strongly developed | long filament (both sexes) | throat unspotted |
Schmidtler's smooth newt* L. schmidtleri |
Anatolia and eastern Balkans | slightly square | high (>2 mm at mid-body), denticulated | weakly developed | elongated, no filament | very small, 5–7 cm (2.0–2.8 in) |
Distribution
Native range
The smooth newt has been described as "the most ubiquitous and widely distributed newt of the Old World".[16]: 237 The nominate subspecies, L. v. vulgaris, is most widespread and ranges natively from Ireland (where the smooth newt is the only newt species) and Great Britain in the west to Siberia and northern Kazakhstan in the east. In the north it reaches central Fennoscandia, and its southern limit is central France, northern Italy, the central Balkans and the dry Eurasian steppe of Ukraine and Russia.[19][11][16]: 234–238 [10]: 42–44 The subspecies L. v. ampelensis only occurs in the Carpathians of Ukraine and the Danube delta of northern Romania, and L. v. meridionalis in the northern half of Italy, southern Switzerland, Slovenia and Croatia.[16]: 234–235
In the Carpathians, the smooth newt generally prefers lower elevations than the Carpathian newt. In the Balkans, the precise contact zones with the Greek smooth newt and Schmidtler's smooth newt are not yet clear.[11] In central Italy, it was found that the range of the smooth newt relative to that of the neighbouring Italian newt (L. italicus) was determined by climate.[20]
Introduced range
The nominate subspecies, L. v. vulgaris, has been introduced to Australia, which has no native salamander species. The smooth newt was available in the Australian pet trade until 1997, when it was declared a "controlled pest animal" because of the risk of introduction. The first record in the wild was made near Melbourne in 2011, and larvae were later found, indicating successful reproduction. Negative impacts on the native fauna are feared, including predation on and competition with native frogs and freshwater invertebrates, toxicity, and disease spread. The smooth newt could spread further in south-eastern Australia, where wide areas have a suitable climate.[21]
Within Europe, the subspecies L. v. meridionalis was introduced north of the Alps near Geneva, where it hybridises with the native L. v. vulgaris.[22]
Habitats
![Sunny, water-filled ditch at the edge of f forest](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fosse_Houssen_Lissotriton_vulgaris.jpg/220px-Fosse_Houssen_Lissotriton_vulgaris.jpg)
Mainly a lowland species, the smooth newt is only exceptionally found above 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[10]: 78–80 It accepts a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic habitats. On land, it occurs in wooded areas (dense conifer woods are avoided) but also in more open areas such as damp meadows, field edges, parks and gardens. It readily adapts to urban environments. The newts hide under structures such as logs or stones or in small mammal burrows.[10]: 120–134 [19][16]: 238
Aquatic breeding sites must be close to the land habitats. They are typically sun-exposed, free from fish, stagnant, permanent or water-filled for at least three months, close to similar water bodies, and have shallow areas with abundant water plants. They can range from small puddles to larger ponds or shallow parts of lakes. Water quality is less important; pH values from 4 to 9.6 are tolerated and in Germany, smooth newts have even been found in slightly brackish water.[10]: 121–129 They often share breeding sites with other amphibians, including other newts; in northern France, ponds with five newt species – smooth, palmate, alpine (Ichthyosaura alpestris), northern crested (Triturus cristatus) and marbled newt (T. marmoratus) – have been described.[10]: 151–152
Lifecycle and behaviour
Smooth newts live on land during most of the year and are mainly nocturnal. They also usually hibernate on land, often in congregations of several newts in shelters such as under logs or in burrows (but they can be active during mild weather[23]). The efts turn into mature adults at two to three years, and an overall age of 6–14 years can be reached in the wild.[16]: 238 The newts recognise familiar territory using smell and visual cues, but could not orient themselves in experiments when they were transported far away from the home range.[24]
Reproduction
External videos | |
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![]() |
![Two brown juvenile newts sitting closely together](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Smooth_Newt_Juveniles_%28Lissotriton_vulgaris%29_%288618458053%29.jpg/220px-Smooth_Newt_Juveniles_%28Lissotriton_vulgaris%29_%288618458053%29.jpg)
Migration to the breeding sites occurs as soon as February, but in the northern parts of the range and at higher altitudes, it may not start before summer. After entering the water, the breeding characters, especially the male's crest, take a few weeks to develop.[16]: 238
Mating involves an intricate courtship display: The male attempts to attract a female by swimming in front of her and sniffing her cloaca. He then vibrates his tail against his body, sometimes violently lashing it, thereby fanning pheromones towards her. In the final phase, he moves away from her, the tail quivering. If she is still interested, she will follow him and touch his cloaca with her snout, whereupon he deposits a packet of sperm (a spermatophore). He then guides her over the spermatophore so she picks it up with her cloaca. Males often try to lead females away from displaying competitors.[16]: 238–240
Eggs are fertilised internally, and progeny of one female usually has multiple fathers. It has been shown that females tend to mate preferentially with unrelated males, probably to avoid inbreeding depression.[25]
Females lay 100–500 eggs, usually folding them into waterplants. The eggs are 1.3–1.7 mm in diameter (2.7–4 mm with jelly capsule) and light brown to greenish or grey in colour. Larvae typically hatch after 10–20 days, depending on temperature, and metamorphose into terrestrial efts after around three months.[16]: 238–240
Paedomorphism, where adults stay aquatic and retain their gills and skin seams or only resorb them partially, occurs regularly but only in a small proportion of individuals. It does not appear to be determined genetically but favoured by cold water, a low density of individuals and abundant aquatic prey. Wild paedomorphic individuals often metamorphosed when they were transferred into an aquarium.[10]: 192-193
Diet, predators and parasites
Smooth newts, including the larvae, are unselective carnivores, feeding mainly on diverse invertebrates such as earthworms, snails or insects, or smaller plankton. Cannibalism also occurs, mainly by preying on eggs of its own species. Various predators eat smooth newts, including waterbirds, snakes and frogs, but also larger newts such as the northern crested newt.[16]: 238
Various pathogens and parasites have been found to infect smooth newts, including ranaviruses,[26] a picornavirus,[27], various protozoans,[10]: 164 trematodes[28][10]: 164 (of which Parastrigea robusta was found to cause the local decline of a population[29]) and at least 31 species of helminths.[30]
Threats and conservation
The smooth newt is common over much of its range.[1][16]: 237 The IUCN, in 2008, assessed its threat status as Least Concern and found no general decline in populations.[1] However, this assessment included subspecies now recognised as separate species (see section Taxonomy above) and needs updating.[11] Despite the overall low concern, the smooth newt is listed in some national red lists, e.g. in Switzerland, the Czech Republic, and the Netherlands.[10]: 196 Like all amphibians, it is also listed as protected species in the Berne Convention (Appendix III).[31] Disturbance, capture, killing and trade are prohibited in Ireland under the Wildlife Act 1976,[32] and trade in the UK under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981.[33]
Threats to smooth newts are similar to those affecting other amphibians. They include especially the loss of breeding ponds through destruction or introduction of fish, and the fragmentation of population through roads.[10]: 196-197 Secondary habitats can help sustain the species, e.g. former gravel pits or quarries left open.[10]: 204-205 The value of artificial water bodies as habitat can be improved when nearby hiding structures like stones or wood are added on land.[34] Garden ponds are readily colonised if they are sun-exposed, have abundant water plants, no fish, and nearby hiding structures.[10]: 206-218 Artifical hibernation sites ("newt hotels") were readily used in a study in Norway, especially by juveniles.[35]
To track individuals and monitor populations, researchers have often amputated phalanges of fingers and toes but these re-grow quickly; a safer and less harmful alternative is recording the individual belly patterns through photography.[10]: 223-224 Researchers have also developed genetic methods based on microsatellite distribution to assess patterns of genetic diversity.[36]
Captivity
Smooth newts can be kept in captivity, but must come from a legal source under the applicable legislation given their protected status (see above). They need a land and water phase, with hibernation for two to three months at 5–10 °C.[10]: 210-215 The juveniles remain terrestrial and will only return to water at maturity. Individuals have reached ages of 4–8, exceptionally up to 20 years, in captivity.[16]: 240
References
- ^ a b c Arntzen, J.W.; Kuzmin, S.; Beebee, T.; et al. (2009). "Lissotriton vulgaris". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2009: e.T59481A11932252. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009.RLTS.T59481A11932252.en. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
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: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Buono, Vincenzo; Galliani, Giorgia; Mancini, Emiliano; et al. (2018). "An improved microsatellite panel to assess genetic variability of the Italian smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris meridionalis)". Journal of Genetics. 97 (2): 569–573. doi:10.1007/s12041-018-0934-8. ISSN 0022-1333.