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At the time of the 2013 Lichtenstein Retrospective at the [[Tate Modern]], ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'''s critic Alastair Smart wrote a generally disparaging review in which he characterized ''Whaam!'' as an attempt to mimic Abstract Expressionism. Smart said the work was neither a positive commentary on the fighting American spirit nor a critique, but was notable for marking "Lichtenstein's incendiary impact on the US art scene".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9888768/Lichtenstein-at-Tate-Modern-review.html|title=Lichtenstein, at Tate Modern, review|accessdate=2013-06-15|date=2013-02-23|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|author=Smart, Alastair}}</ref>

When art dealer [[Ileana Sonnabend]] sold ''Whaam!'' to the Tate for £4,665 (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|4665|1966}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}} currency) in 1966—in spite of a reported market price of £5,382 (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|5382|1966}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}} currency)—the acquisition was condemned by some of the museum's trustees, among them the sculptor [[Barbara Hepworth]], the painter [[Andrew Forge]], and the critic [[Herbert Read]]. The Tate's director, Norman Reid, said that the work aroused more public interest than any acquisition since the Second World War. In 1969, Lichtenstein donated what he called a "pencil scribble", his initial sketch for ''Whaam!''. The first Lichtenstein retrospective held at the museum attracted 52,000 visitors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theartnewspaper.com/articles/Who+opposed+a+%C2%A34%2c665+Lichtenstein%3f/28512|title=Who opposed a £4,665 Lichtenstein?|author=Bailey, Martin|issue=243|accessdate=2013-02-19|date=2013-02-13|work=[[The Art Newspaper]]}}</ref>
When art dealer [[Ileana Sonnabend]] sold ''Whaam!'' to the Tate for £4,665 (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|4665|1966}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}} currency) in 1966—in spite of a reported market price of £5,382 (£{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|5382|1966}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}} currency)—the acquisition was condemned by some of the museum's trustees, among them the sculptor [[Barbara Hepworth]], the painter [[Andrew Forge]], and the critic [[Herbert Read]]. The Tate's director, Norman Reid, said that the work aroused more public interest than any acquisition since the Second World War. In 1969, Lichtenstein donated what he called a "pencil scribble", his initial sketch for ''Whaam!''. The first Lichtenstein retrospective held at the museum attracted 52,000 visitors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theartnewspaper.com/articles/Who+opposed+a+%C2%A34%2c665+Lichtenstein%3f/28512|title=Who opposed a £4,665 Lichtenstein?|author=Bailey, Martin|issue=243|accessdate=2013-02-19|date=2013-02-13|work=[[The Art Newspaper]]}}</ref>


Revision as of 19:38, 17 July 2013

Not to be confused with Wham.

Whaam!
ArtistRoy Lichtenstein
Year1963
TypePop art
LocationTate Modern, London

Whaam! is a 1963 diptych painting by the American Pop artist Roy Lichtenstein. It is an iconic piece of pop art and is widely regarded as one of his finest and most notable works. It follows the comic strip-based themes of his earlier work, and is part of a series on war that he worked on between 1962 and 1964. It was exhibited at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York in 1963, and purchased by the Tate Gallery in London in 1966. Along with As I Opened Fire, it is one of his two notable large war-themed paintings.

Lichtenstein was a United States Army pilot, draftsman and artist as well as a World War II (WWII) veteran who never saw active combat. He went on to create a broad array of military art, and he depicted aerial combat in several works. Whaam! portrays the fiery explosion when one fighter plane successfully shoots at another with a missile. The painting's title is displayed in the oversized onomatopoeic caption in the second panel.

The image is derived from multiple comic book panels. Lichtenstein transformed his prototype—a single panel from a war comic book published in 1962—by dividing the underlying composition into two panels and altering the relationship of the various graphical and narrative elements. He also reworked aspects of other compositions into this work, which is admired for the temporal, spatial and psychological unity of its two panels and which Lichtenstein conceived as a contrasting pair.

Lichtenstein was criticized by some commentators for his failure to give credit or compensation to the comic book artists whose work he copied. Despite controversy surrounding its artistic merit, originality and ethical propriety, Lichtenstein's comics-based work has since become popular with collectors and is now widely accepted.

Background

Lichtenstein left Ohio State University to serve in the United States Army between February 1943 and January 1946—during and after WWII. After entering training programs for languages, engineering, and pilot training, all of which were cancelled, he served as an orderly, draftsman, and artist in noncombat roles.[1][2] Among his duties as an orderly at Camp Shelby was enlarging Bill Mauldin's Stars and Stripes cartoons.[1]

According to the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth subject matter sourced from comic books was regarded as among the dregs of commercial and intellectual topics because of public sentiment on the heels of early 1950s United States Senate investigations of connections between comics and juvenile delinquency.[3] During the late 1950s and early 1960s a number of American painters began to adapt the imagery and motifs of comic strips to paintings on canvas. Lichtenstein made drawings in 1958 of comic strip characters. Andy Warhol produced his earliest paintings in the style in 1960. Lichtenstein, unaware of Warhol's work, produced Look Mickey and Popeye in 1961.[4] He turned from his Abstract Expressionism period to cartoon work in 1961 and then moved on to more serious comic book themes such as romance and wartime armed forces depictions a few years later.[5] Lichtenstein said that at the time, "I was very excited about, and very interested in, the highly emotional content yet detached impersonal handling of love, hate, war, etc., in these cartoon images."[5] Lichtenstein's romance and war comic-based works monumentalized comic book heroic subjects.[6] It has been observed that the "simplicity and outdatedness [of comics] were ripe for being mocked".[7] Lichtenstein's list of aeronautical themed works is extensive.[8] Lichtenstein stated that he does not take his militaristic subjects seriously: "the heroes depicted in comic books are fascist types, but I don't take them seriously in these paintings—maybe there is a point in not taking them seriously, a political point. I use them for purely formal reasons."[9] The large dimensions of Whaam! are consistent with the generally large canvases in use at that time by the abstract expressionists.[10]

Lichtenstein had not been a comic book collector as a youth.[11] Although Lichtenstein is known for painting the comic-based Whaam! and several similarly themed works, his second wife, Dorothy, claims that Lichtenstein "was not a fan of comics and cartoons," but rather was enticed by the challenge of creating art based on a subject that was remote from the typical "artistic image".[12]

History

Original comic book panel from All-American Men of War #89, January–February 1962 (DC Comics)

Whaam! adapts a comic-book panel drawn by Irv Novick from the "Star Jockey" story of the January–February 1962 DC Comics' All-American Men of War issue #89.[13][14][15] However, Paul Gravett asserts that Lichtenstein substituted the attacking plane from the subsequent issue #90 (March–April 1962), illustrated by Jerry Grandenetti, and speculates that he may have substituted for the target plane a Russ Heath drawing in the same issue.[7] Throughout the 1960s, Lichtenstein repeatedly depicted aerial combat between the United States and the Soviet Union.[2] In the early and mid-1960s, he produced explosions sculptures that depicted freestanding and relief forms of subjects such as his previous comic-based paintings of "catastrophic release of energy" such as Whaam!.[16]

When Lichtenstein had his first solo show at The Leo Castelli Gallery in New York City in February 1962, it sold out before opening. The exhibition included Engagement Ring, Blam and The Refrigerator.[17] The show ran from February 10—March 3, 1962.[18] According to the Lichtenstein Foundation website, Whaam! was part of Lichtenstein's second solo exhibition at Leo Castelli Gallery from September 28—October 24, 1963 that included Drowning Girl, Baseball Manager, In the Car, Conversation, and Torpedo...Los!.[1][18] Marketing materials for the show included the lithograph artwork, Crak![19][20]

Some sources claim that Lichtenstein substituted this image for the attacking plane from the subsequent issue of All American Men Of War #90, March–April 1962 (DC Comics).

In 1963, Lichtenstein was parodying various types of sources such as commercial illustrations, comic imagery and even modern masterpieces. The masterpieces represented canonical works of "high art" by Cézanne, Mondrian, Picasso, and others, while the "low-art" subject matter included comic strip images. During this time in his career, Lichtenstein noted that "the things that I have apparently parodied I actually admire."[21] Although the Lichtenstein Foundation website says that Lichtenstein did not begin using his opaque projector technique until the autumn of 1963,[1] Lichtenstein described his process for producing comics based art as follows:

As directly as possible ... From a cartoon, photograph or whatever, I draw a small picture—the size that will fit into my opaque projector ... I don't draw a picture to reproduce it—I do it in order to recompose it ... I project the drawing onto the canvas and pencil it in and then I play around with the drawing until it satisfies me.[5]

Whaam! was purchased by the Tate Gallery in 1966.[1]

Description

A pivotal work of the pop art movement, Whaam! painting depicts a fighter aircraft firing a rocket into an enemy plane, with a red-and-yellow explosion. The cartoon style is heightened by the use of the onomatopoeic lettering "WHAAM!" and the yellow-boxed caption with black lettering. The exclamation "WHAAM!" is the graphic equivalent of a sound effect[22] (other onomatopoeic works by Lichtenstein include Bratatat! and Varoom!).[23]

One of Lichtenstein's war series of images (another major one is As I Opened Fire), it combines "brilliant color and narrative situation".[24] The painting is large in scale, measuring 4.0 x 1.7 m (13 ft 4 in x 5 ft 7 in).[13] Lichtenstein employed his usual comic book style: "Using bright primary colors with black and white, he outlined simplified forms, incorporating mechanical printer's Ben-Day dots and stereotyped imagery."[25] Whaam! departs from Lichtenstein's earlier works such as Step-on-Can with Leg and Like New, in that the panels are not two variations of the same image.[26]

File:Whaam! text balloon.jpg
Text balloon of Whaam!

Lichtenstein altered the source so that the exploding plane was more prominent than in the original relative to the dominant conquering plane, making the image more compelling.[15] Although the exploding flames dominate the right panel,[15] the pilot and the airplane in the left panel are the narrative focus.[22] They exemplify Lichtenstein's painstaking detailing of physical features of the aircraft's cockpit.[27] The other element of the narrative content is a text balloon that contains the following text: "I pressed the fire control ... and ahead of me rockets blazed through the sky ..."[28]

Although the original source was one panel, Lichtenstein created two panels to reinforce the separation of action and result.[15] The left panel features the attacking plane—placed at a diagonal to create a sense of depth—below the text balloon, which Lichtenstein has relegated to the margin above the plane.[15] In the right panel, the exploding plane—depicted head-on—and the exclamation compete with the emphatic flames.[15] The two halves are clearly linked,[29] with one panel containing the missile launch and the other its explosion, representing temporally distinct events.[30] Lichtenstein commented on this piece in a July 10, 1967 letter: "I remember being concerned with the idea of doing two almost separate paintings having little hint of compositional connection, and each having slightly separate stylistic character. Of course there is the humorous connection of one panel shooting the other."[31]

When Lichtenstein made his transition to comic-based work, he mimicked the style while adapting the subject matter.[32] He is known for borrowing both comic book techniques and subjects.[25] He applied simplified color schemes and commercial printing-like techniques. The borrowed technique was "representing tonal variations with patterns of colored circles that imitated the half-tone screens of Ben Day dots used in newspaper printing, and surrounding these with black outlines similar to those used to conceal imperfections in cheap newsprint."[32] PBS asserts that this is an adaptation of the ligne claire style associated with Hergé.[33] Lichtenstein once said of his technique: "I take a cliche and try to organize its forms to make it monumental."[28]

Reception

Whaam!'s grand scale and dramatic depiction make it a historic pop art work.[34] It is widely described as Lichtenstein's most famous work,[35][36] while some sources cite it, along with Drowning Girl, as one of his two most famous works.[37][38] It is also regarded as one of his most influential works along with Drowning Girl and Look Mickey.[39]

Positive

José Pierre says Whaam! represented Lichtenstein's 1963 expansion "into the 'epic' vein".[40] A November 1963 Art Magazine review stated that this was one of the "broad and powerful paintings" of the 1963 exhibition at Castelli's Gallery.[18] One view is that by magnifying the comic book panels to an enormous size, "Lichtenstein slapped the viewer in the face with their triviality."[25] Whaam! presented "... limited, flat colors and hard, precise drawing," which produced "... a hard-edge subject painting that documents while it gently parodies the familiar hero images of modern America."[41] The planned brushstrokes are pop art's retort to Expressionism.[34] Along with As I Opened Fire (the other of his monumental war paintings), this is regarded as the culmination of the dramatic war-comic works of Lichtenstein.[42] Compared with As I Opened Fire, Whaam! is less abstract.[43]

Whaam! stands out from Lichtenstein's other comic-based works as the most harmonious in the sense that the narrative and graphic elements are complementary, the time and space are logical with the action going from left to right, and the components are spatially aligned to depict the action. The ellipses of the text balloon present progression which culminates with a "WHAAM!". The "coincidence of pictorial and verbal order" are clear for the Western viewer with the explanatory text beginning in the upper left and action vector moving from the left foreground to the right depth, culminating in a graphical explosion in tandem with a narrative exclamation.[44] Wendy Steiner says the striking incongruity of the two panels—the left panel appearing to be "truncated", while the right depicts a centralized explosion—enhances the work's narrative power.[44]

Despite his general distaste for the exhibition, Adrian Searle of The Guardian credited the work's title with accurately describing its graphic content: "Whaam! goes the painting, as the rocket hits, and the enemy fighter explodes in a livid, comic-book roar."[45] The work is regarded as a "spectacular display of firepower".[2]

The most important element of Lichtenstein's procedure was "the enlargement and unification of his source material". His method entailed "strengthening of the formal aspects of the composition, a stylization of motif, and a 'freezing' of both emotion and actions". Extreme examples of his formalization become "virtual abstraction" when the viewer recalls that the motif is an element of a larger work. Thus, Lichtenstein reinforced the non-realist view of comic strips and advertisements, presenting them as artificial images with minimalistic graphic techniques. Lichtenstein's magnification of his source material stressed the plainness of his motifs as an equivalent to mechanical commercial drawing, leading to implications about his statements on modern industrial America. Nonetheless, Lichtenstein appears to have accepted the American capitalist industrial culture.[32]

The comic book medium that inspired paintings such as Whaam! was, in turn, affected by the cultural impact of pop art. By the mid-1960s, some comic books were displaying a new emphasis on garish colors, emphatic sound effects, and stilted dialogue—the elements of comic book style that had come to be regarded as camp—in an attempt to appeal to older, college-age readers who appreciated pop art.[46]

Negative

At the time of the 2013 Lichtenstein Retrospective at the Tate Modern, The Daily Telegraph's critic Alastair Smart wrote a generally disparaging review in which he characterized Whaam! as an attempt to mimic Abstract Expressionism. Smart said the work was neither a positive commentary on the fighting American spirit nor a critique, but was notable for marking "Lichtenstein's incendiary impact on the US art scene".[47]

When art dealer Ileana Sonnabend sold Whaam! to the Tate for £4,665 (£109,763 in 2024 currency) in 1966—in spite of a reported market price of £5,382 (£126,633 in 2024 currency)—the acquisition was condemned by some of the museum's trustees, among them the sculptor Barbara Hepworth, the painter Andrew Forge, and the critic Herbert Read. The Tate's director, Norman Reid, said that the work aroused more public interest than any acquisition since the Second World War. In 1969, Lichtenstein donated what he called a "pencil scribble", his initial sketch for Whaam!. The first Lichtenstein retrospective held at the museum attracted 52,000 visitors.[48]

Lichtenstein's presentation of aerial combat is regarded as "dispassionate, detached and oddly disembodied" by David McCarthy who notes that Lichtenstein seemed intent upon scaling up a comic book image to history painting dimensions. This was in contrast to artists in whom the experience of the military conflict brought out a need to horrify and/or shock the audience.[2]

On February 24, 2013, Alastair Sooke produced a documentary about the show for BBC4. Part of this included an interview with Dave Gibbons while standing in front of Whaam! at the Tate Modern. When Sooke attempted to prompt Gibbons to talk about Lichtenstein's improvements to the work, Gibbons disagreed: "This to me looks flat and abstracted, to the point of view that to my eyes it's confusing. Whereas the original has got a three-dimensional quality to it, it's got a spontaneity to it, it's got an excitement to it, and a way of involving the viewer that this one lacks."[7]

General originality

Lichtenstein's blow-ups of comics engendered a widespread debate about their merits as art. In 1963, Brian O'Doherty stated in The New York Times that Lichtenstein was "one of the worst artists in America" who "briskly went about making a sow's ear out of a sow's ear";[28] and in January 1964, Life published an article titled "Is He the Worst Artist in the U.S.?"[49] Later reviews were much kinder, a change Todd Brewster attributed to popular demand. Brewster wrote in Life in 1986 that "Those cartoon blowups may have disturbed the critics, but collectors, tired of the solemnity of abstract expressionism, were ready for some comic relief. Why couldn't the funny pages be fine art?"[28]

Although Lichtenstein's comic-based work is now widely accepted, concerns are still expressed by critics who say Lichtenstein did not credit, pay any royalties to, or seek permission from the original artists or copyright holders.[50] David Barsalou has dedicated decades to identifying all of Lichtenstein's source materials and has posted over 1000 images on Flickr detailing Lichtenstein's unrecognized sources.[51]

In an interview for a BBC4 documentary in 2013, Alastair Sooke asked the artist Dave Gibbons if he considered Lichtenstein a plagiarist. Gibbons replied: "I would say 'copycat'. In music for instance, you can't just whistle somebody else's tune or perform somebody else's tune, no matter how badly, without somehow crediting and giving payment to the original artist. That's to say, this is 'WHAAM! by Roy Lichtenstein, after Irv Novick'."[7] In an account published in 1998, Irv Novick said that he had met Lichtenstein in the army in 1947 and, as his superior officer, had responded to Lichtenstein's tearful complaints about the menial tasks he was assigned by recommending him for a better job.[52] Jean-Paul Gabilliet has questioned this account, saying that Lichtenstein had left the army a year before the time Novick says the incident took place.[53] Bart Beaty, noting that Lichtenstein had appropriated Novick for works such as Whaam! and Okay Hot-Shot, Okay!, says that Novick's story "seems to be an attempt to personally diminish" the more famous artist.[52]

Whaam! was part of the largest-ever retrospective of Lichtenstein that visited The Art Institute of Chicago from May 16 to September 3, 2012, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. from October 14, 2012 to January 13, 2013, the Tate Modern in London from February 21 to May 27, 2013 and The Centre Pompidou from July 3 to November 4, 2013.[54][55]

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e "Chronology". Roy Lichtenstein Foundation. Retrieved 2013-06-09.
  2. ^ a b c d McCarthy, David (2004). H.C. Westermann at War: Art and Manhood in Cold War America. University of Delaware Press. p. 71. ISBN 0-87413-871-X. Retrieved 2013-05-16.
  3. ^ "Mr. Bellamy". Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth. Retrieved 2013-07-15.
  4. ^ Livingstone, Marco (2000). Pop Art: A Continuing History. Thames and Hudson. pp. 72–73. ISBN 0-500-28240-4.
  5. ^ a b c Lanchner, Carolyn (2009). Roy Lichtenstein. Museum of Modern Art. pp. 11–14. ISBN 0-87070-770-1.
  6. ^ Schneckenburger, Honnef, Ruhrberg, Fricke (2000). Ingo, Walter F. (ed.). Art of the 20th Century. Taschen. p. 321. ISBN 3-8228-5907-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ a b c d Gravett, Paul (2013-03-17). "The Principality of Lichtenstein: From 'WHAAM!' to 'WHAAT?'". PaulGravett.com. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
  8. ^ Pisano, Dominick A., ed. (2003). The Airplane in American Culture. University of Michigan Press. p. 275. ISBN 0-472-06833-4. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
  9. ^ Naremore, James and Patrick M. Brantlinger, ed. (1991). Modernity and Mass Culture. Indiana University Press. p. 208. ISBN 0-253-20627-8. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
  10. ^ Smart, Alastair (2013-02-23). "Lichtenstein, at Tate Modern, review". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  11. ^ Brown, Mark (2013-02-18). "Roy Lichtenstein outgrew term pop art, says widow prior to Tate show: New insights come as most comprehensive show of artist's work ever attempted brings together 125 paintings and sculptures". The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  12. ^ Clark, Nick (2013-02-18). "Whaam! artist Roy Lichtenstein was 'not a fan of comics and cartoons'". The Independent. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  13. ^ a b Lichtenstein, Roy. "Whaam!". Tate Collection. Retrieved 2013-06-26.
  14. ^ "1960s: Whaam!". Lichtenstein Foundation. Retrieved 2012-05-23.
  15. ^ a b c d e f Waldman. "War Comics, 1962–64". p. 104. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  16. ^ Alloway. . p. 56.
  17. ^ Tomkins, Calvin (1988). "Roy Lichtenstein: Mural With Blue Brushstroke". Harry N. Abrams, Inc. p. 25. ISBN 0-8109-2356-4. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  18. ^ a b c Judd, Donald (2009). "Reviews 1962–64". In Bader, Graham (ed.). Roy Lichtenstein: October Files. The MIT Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-262-01258-4. Cite error: The named reference "RLOF4" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  19. ^ "Search Result: CRAK!". LichtensteinFoundation.org. Retrieved 2013-06-26.
  20. ^ Lobel, Michael (2009). "Technology Envisioned: Lichtenstein's Monocularity". In Bader, Graham (ed.). Roy Lichtenstein. MIT Press. pp. 118–20. ISBN 978-0-262-01258-4.
  21. ^ "Christie's to offer a Pop Art masterpiece: Roy Lichtenstein's Woman with Flowered Hat". ArtDaily. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
  22. ^ a b Waldman. "War Comics, 1962–64". p. 105. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  23. ^ "The Report: Mr Roy Lichtenstein". MrPorter.com. 2013-02-12. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
  24. ^ Alloway. . p. 20.
  25. ^ a b c Strickland, Carol (2007). The Annotated Mona Lisa: A Crash Course in Art History from Prehistoric to Post-Modern. Andrews McMeel Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 0-7407-6872-7. Retrieved 2013-06-16.
  26. ^ Waldman. "War Comics, 1962–64". p. 104. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  27. ^ Lobel, Michael. "Technology Envisioned: Lichtenstein's Monocularity". In Bader (ed.). pp. 123–24. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  28. ^ a b c d Monroe, Robert (1997-09-29). "Pop Art pioneer Roy Lichtenstein dead at 73". Associated Press. Retrieved 2013-06-15. Cite error: The named reference "PApRLda7" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  29. ^ Coplans (ed.). . p. 39. ... Whaam I (1963), on the other hand, is a diptych with a clearly linked pictorial narrative ...
  30. ^ Archer, Michael (2002). "The Real and its Objects". Art Since 1960 (second ed.). Thames & Hudson. p. 25. ISBN 0-500-20351-2.
  31. ^ Coplans (ed.). . p. 164.
  32. ^ a b c Marter, Joan, ed. (2011). The Grove Encyclopedia of American Art. Oxford University Press. p. 158. ISBN 0-19-533579-1. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  33. ^ "Essay: Tintin in America". PBS. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
  34. ^ a b Arnason, H. H., Daniel Wheeler (revising author third edition), and Marla F. Prather (revising author, fourth edition) (1998). "Pop Art and Europe's New Realism". History of Modern Art: Painting • Sculpture • Architecture • Photography (fourth ed.). Harry N. Abrams, Inc. pp. 538–540. ISBN 0-8109-3439-6. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ "Roy Lichtenstein: Biography of American Pop Artist, Comic-Strip-style Painter". Encyclopedia of Art. Retrieved 2013-06-05.
  36. ^ "Roy Lichtenstein: American artist". Reproduced Fine Art, Inc. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
  37. ^ Cronin, Brian. Why Does Batman Carry Shark Repellent?: And Other Amazing Comic Book Trivia!. Penguin Books. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
  38. ^ Collett-White, Mike (2013-02-18). "Lichtenstein show in UK goes beyond cartoon classics". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
  39. ^ Hoang, Li-mei (2012-09-21). "Pop art pioneer Lichtenstein in Tate Modern retrospective". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
  40. ^ Pierre, José (1977). An Illustrated History of Pop Art. Eyre Methuen. p. 91. ISBN 0-413-38370-9.
  41. ^ Arnason, H. H. (1986). "Pop Art, Assemblage, and Europe's New Realism". History of Modern Art (third ed.). Prentice Hall, Inc./Harry N. Abrams, Inc. p. 458. ISBN 0-13-390360-5.
  42. ^ Waldman. "War Comics, 1962–64". p. 95. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  43. ^ Waldman. "War Comics, 1962–64". p. 105. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  44. ^ a b Steiner, Wendy (1987). Pictures of Romance: Form against Context in Painting and Literature. University Of Chicago Press. pp. 161–4. ISBN 0-226-77229-2. Retrieved 2013-06-17.
  45. ^ Searle, Adrian (2013-02-18). "Roy Lichtenstein: too cool for school?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  46. ^ Brooker, Will (2001). Batman Unmasked: Analyzing a Cultural Icon. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 182. ISBN 0-8264-1343-9. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
  47. ^ Smart, Alastair (2013-02-23). "Lichtenstein, at Tate Modern, review". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-06-15.
  48. ^ Bailey, Martin (2013-02-13). "Who opposed a £4,665 Lichtenstein?". The Art Newspaper. Retrieved 2013-02-19.
  49. ^ "Is He the Worst Artist in the U.S.?". Life. LichtensteinFoundation.org. 1964-01-31. Retrieved 2013-06-10.
  50. ^ Steven, Rachael (2013-05-13). "Image Duplicator: pop art's comic debt". Creative Review. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
  51. ^ Childs, Brian (2011-02-02). "Deconstructing Lichtenstein: Source Comics Revealed and Credited". Comics Alliance. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
  52. ^ a b Beaty, Bart (2004). "Roy Lichtenstein's Tears: Art vs. Pop in American Culture". Canadian Review of American Studies. 34 (3): 249–268. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
  53. ^ Gabilliet, Jean-Paul (2009). Of Comics and Men: A Cultural History of American Comic Books. University Press of Mississippi. p. 350. ISBN 1-60473-267-9. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
  54. ^ "'Roy Lichtenstein: A Retrospective' Debuts At The Art Institute of Chicago (PHOTOS)". The Huffington Post. 2012-05-22. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
  55. ^ Kirkova, Deni (2013-02-19). "Pop goes the Tate! Iconic works of Roy Lichtenstein brought together for exciting new exhibition at the Tate Modern". Daily Mail. Retrieved 2013-06-07.

References

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