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'''The Troubles''' of the 1920s was a period of conflict in the Irish Provence of [[Ulster]] from June 1920 until June 1922, during and after the [[Irish War of Independence]] and the [[partition of Ireland]]. It was mainly a communal conflict between [[Ulster Protestants|Protestant]] [[Unionism in Ireland|Unionists]], who wanted to remain part of the United Kingdom, and [[Irish Catholics|Catholic]] [[Irish nationalism|Irish nationalists]], who backed Irish independence. More than 500 people were killed and more than 10,000 became refugees, most of them from the Catholic minority.
'''The Troubles''' of the 1920s was a period of conflict in the Irish Provence of [[Ulster]] from June 1920 until June 1922, during and after the [[Irish War of Independence]] and the [[partition of Ireland]]. It was mainly a communal conflict between [[Ulster Protestants|Protestant]] [[Unionism in Ireland|Unionists]], who wanted to remain part of the United Kingdom, and [[Irish Catholics|Catholic]] [[Irish nationalism|Irish nationalists]], who backed Irish independence. More than 500 people were killed and more than 10,000 became refugees, most of them from the Catholic minority.


At the time, Ireland as a whole had a Catholic and Irish nationalist majority, but Protestants and Unionists were a majority in most of the northern province of [[Ulster]]. Following the [[Home Rule Crisis]], the British government proposed to solve the issue by partitioning Ireland, creating two [[Devolution|self-governing]] territories of the UK: [[Northern Ireland]] (with [[Belfast]] its capital) and [[Southern Ireland (1921–22)|Southern Ireland]]. Irish nationalists opposed partition. In the [[1918 Irish general election|1918 general election]], [[Irish republicanism|Irish republican]] party [[Sinn Féin]] won the overwhelming majority of Irish seats. Its elected members formed an Irish parliament ([[First Dáil|Dáil Éireann]]), [[Unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally declared]] the whole island to be an independent [[Irish Republic]] and issued the [[Irish Declaration of Independence]] (21 January 1919).
At the time, Ireland as a whole had a Catholic and Irish nationalist majority, but Protestants and Unionists were a majority in the northern province of [[Ulster]]. Following the [[Home Rule Crisis]], the British government proposed to solve the issue by partitioning Ireland, creating two [[Devolution|self-governing]] territories of the UK: [[Northern Ireland]] (with [[Belfast]] its capital) and [[Southern Ireland (1921–22)|Southern Ireland]]. Irish nationalists opposed partition. In the [[1918 Irish general election|1918 general election]], [[Irish republicanism|Irish republican]] party [[Sinn Féin]] won the overwhelming majority of Irish seats. Its elected members formed an Irish parliament ([[First Dáil|Dáil Éireann]]), [[Unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally declared]] the whole island to be an independent [[Irish Republic]] and issued the [[Irish Declaration of Independence]] (21 January 1919).


A guerrilla conflict developed as the [[Irish Republican Army (1919–1922)|Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) began attacking British forces, although it was less active in the north. Protestant [[Ulster loyalism|Loyalists]] attacked the Catholic community in retaliation. In July 1920, Loyalists drove 8,000 mostly Catholic co-workers out of the Belfast shipyards, sparking [[sectarian violence]] in the city. That summer, sectarian violence also erupted in [[Derry]], leaving twenty people dead, while there were mass burnings of Catholic property in [[Lisburn]] and [[Banbridge]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lynch |first=Robert |title=The Partition of Ireland: 1918–1925 |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=90–92}}</ref>
A guerrilla conflict developed as the [[Irish Republican Army (1919–1922)|Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) began attacking British forces, although it was less active in the north. Protestant [[Ulster loyalism|Loyalists]] attacked the Catholic community in retaliation. In July 1920, Loyalists drove 8,000 mostly Catholic co-workers out of the Belfast shipyards, sparking [[sectarian violence]] in the city. That summer, sectarian violence also erupted in [[Derry]], leaving twenty people dead, while there were mass burnings of Catholic property in [[Lisburn]] and [[Banbridge]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lynch |first=Robert |title=The Partition of Ireland: 1918–1925 |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=90–92}}</ref>

Revision as of 17:22, 6 September 2022

Not to be confused with the Troubles of the 1960s–1990s.
Conflict deaths in Belfast 1920–1922.
  50–100 deaths per km2
  100–150 deaths per km2
  over 150 deaths per km2

The Troubles of the 1920s was a period of conflict in the Irish Provence of Ulster from June 1920 until June 1922, during and after the Irish War of Independence and the partition of Ireland. It was mainly a communal conflict between Protestant Unionists, who wanted to remain part of the United Kingdom, and Catholic Irish nationalists, who backed Irish independence. More than 500 people were killed and more than 10,000 became refugees, most of them from the Catholic minority.

At the time, Ireland as a whole had a Catholic and Irish nationalist majority, but Protestants and Unionists were a majority in the northern province of Ulster. Following the Home Rule Crisis, the British government proposed to solve the issue by partitioning Ireland, creating two self-governing territories of the UK: Northern Ireland (with Belfast its capital) and Southern Ireland. Irish nationalists opposed partition. In the 1918 general election, Irish republican party Sinn Féin won the overwhelming majority of Irish seats. Its elected members formed an Irish parliament (Dáil Éireann), unilaterally declared the whole island to be an independent Irish Republic and issued the Irish Declaration of Independence (21 January 1919).

A guerrilla conflict developed as the Irish Republican Army (IRA) began attacking British forces, although it was less active in the north. Protestant Loyalists attacked the Catholic community in retaliation. In July 1920, Loyalists drove 8,000 mostly Catholic co-workers out of the Belfast shipyards, sparking sectarian violence in the city. That summer, sectarian violence also erupted in Derry, leaving twenty people dead, while there were mass burnings of Catholic property in Lisburn and Banbridge.[1]

Conflict continued intermittently for two years, mostly in Belfast, which saw "savage and unprecedented" communal violence between Protestants and Catholics.[2] There was rioting, gun battles, and bombings. Almost 1,000 homes and businesses were destroyed and thousands of people were forced out of mixed neighbourhoods. In the Belfast violence, Hibernians were more involved on the Catholic/Nationalist side than the IRA,[3] while groups such as the Ulster Volunteers were involved on the Protestant/Loyalist side. The British Army was deployed and the Ulster Special Constabulary (USC) was formed to help the regular police. The USC was almost wholly Protestant and some members carried out reprisal attacks on Catholics.[4] The Irish Republic approved the 'Belfast Boycott' of Unionist-owned businesses and banks in the city. It was enforced by the IRA, who halted trains and lorries and destroyed goods.

In May 1921, partition came into force under British law. Unionists won most seats in the Northern Ireland election and formed a devolved government. A ceasefire (truce) began on 11 July 1921, ending the fighting in most of Ireland. It was preceded by Belfast's Bloody Sunday, a day of violence in which twenty people were killed.

In early 1922, there were clashes between the IRA and USC around the new border, notably the Clones, County Monaghan incident. There was a resurgence of sectarian violence in Belfast, including the McMahon killings and the Arnon Street killings; these were allegedly carried out by policemen in revenge for the killing of fellow officers.[5] In May 1922 the IRA launched a Northern Offensive, secretly backed by Michael Collins, head of the Irish Provisional Government.[6] This saw the Battle of Pettigo and Belleek, which ended with British troops shelling IRA positions on the border. The Northern government implemented the Special Powers Act, interning suspected IRA members, and imposing a nighttime curfew. The outbreak of Civil War in the south on 28 June 1922 diverted the IRA from its campaign against the Northern government, and violence in Northern Ireland fell sharply.

Irish nationalists saw the violence in and around Belfast as a pogrom against Irish Catholics, referring to it as the Belfast Pogrom. Catholics were a quarter of the city's population but made up two-thirds of those killed, suffered 80% of the property destruction and made up 80% of refugees. Many historians say the term "pogrom" is misleading, as the violence was not all one-sided nor co-ordinated.[7]

Background

Results of the 1918 UK general election in Ireland, showing seats won by Irish nationalists in green, and seats won by Unionists in blue

In the early 20th century, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom. A majority of Ireland's people were Catholics and Irish nationalists who either wanted self-government ("home rule") or independence. However, in the north-east of Ireland, Protestants and Unionists were the majority, largely due to 17th-century British colonization. Unionists wanted to maintain ties to Britain and did not want to be part of a self-governing Ireland. During the Home Rule Crisis of 1912–14, they threatened to oppose any Irish government with violence if necessary, forming a paramilitary group: the Ulster Volunteers or Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). Ulster unionists argued that if Home Rule could not be stopped, then all or part of Ulster should be excluded from it (see Government of Ireland Act 1920).[8] The Act partitioned Ireland along roughly political and religious lines, creating two self-governing territories of the United Kingdom: Northern Ireland (with Belfast as its capital) and Southern Ireland (with Dublin as its capital). Six of the nine counties in the province of Ulster - Antrim, Down, Armagh, Londonderry, Tyrone and Fermanagh comprised the maximum area Unionists believed they could dominate.[9] Generally, Irish nationalists opposed partition, in the 1918 Irish general election five of the nine Counties of Ulster returned Sinn Fein and Irish nationalist (Irish Parliamentary Party) majorities. Although Counties Fermanagh and Tyrone returns showed nationalist majorities they were included into Northern Ireland.[10]

By the end of the First World War (during which the 1916 Easter Rising had taken place), most Irish nationalists now wanted full independence rather than home rule. In the 1918 Irish general election, the Irish republican party Sinn Féin won the overwhelming majority of Irish seats. In line with its manifesto, Sinn Féin's elected members, boycotted the British parliament and founded a separate Irish parliament (Dáil Éireann), declaring the establishment of an independent Irish Republic covering the whole island. However, Unionists won most seats in Ulster and affirmed their continuing loyalty to the United Kingdom.[11] Many Irish republicans blamed the British establishment for the sectarian divisions in Ireland, and believed that Ulster Unionist defiance would fade after British rule was ended.[12] The British authorities outlawed the Dáil in September 1919,[13] and a guerrilla conflict developed as the Irish Republican Army (1919–1922) began to attack British forces. This conflict became known as the Irish War of Independence.[14]

Another contributing factor to the outbreak of communal violence was the severe economic recession that followed the end of World War I. Many workers were made redundant, working hours were reduced and many returning soldiers were unable to find work. Some returning Protestant soldiers felt bitterness against the many Catholics who had remained at home and now held jobs.[15] At the same time, fiery political speeches were made by Unionist leaders and weapons were stockpiled by Ulster loyalists and Irish nationalists.[16][17] Other events which contributed to the outbreak of violence were the assassinations of senior British Army officers, policemen and politicians: RIC Divisional Commissioner Lt Col Gerald Smyth (July 1920), RIC District Inspector Swanzy (August 1920), Belfast City Councilman William J. Twaddell (May 1922), and British Army Field Marshall Sir Henry Wilson (June 1922).[18]

Ireland was not the only place in Europe where violence erupted in the aftermath of World War I, which appeared to accustomise people to the use of violence as a means to an end.[19] Other European conflicts around the same time included the Spartacist uprising, Polish uprising, Silesian Uprisings, the crushing of the Bavarian Soviet Republic, the Hungarian Red Terror followed by the White Terror, the Hungarian–Romanian War, and the Greco-Turkish War amongst others. Whilst the horrors of war had become entrenched in many of the Irish soldiers returning from the war, the "cult of violence" had been growing in Ireland beforehand, fostered by nationalist writings and tales of Imperialistic adventure mixed with the excitement of drilling in the Ulster Volunteers and Irish Volunteers and the gun-running both sides carried out.[19] On returning home, thousands of Irish nationalist soldiers were said to have converted into republicans, or "Sinn Feiners", with some becoming leading IRA figures such as Tom Barry. Similarly some Unionists found themselves reforming the UVF to defend themselves from republican attacks, one of the leading men of which was WWI Military Cross awardee and future Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, Basil Brooke. The British Prime Minister, Lloyd George, had around the same time formed the Black and Tans and Auxiliary Division made up of returning soldiers to help bolster the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC), but they quickly became notorious for their actions against nationalists.[19]

Violence breaks out in Derry

As the War of Independence spread northwards into Ulster, sectarian clashes took place, which would spark a period of fierce sectarian fighting that overshadowed all the riots and clashes of the preceding century. In January 1920, local elections took place for the first time with the single transferable vote form of proportional representation. The British Prime Minister had hoped that this system would show a lack of support for Sinn Féin, and this view had vindication after Sinn Féin won only 550 seats compared to 1,256 for all the other parties, including the Nationalist Party. However, Unionists became dismayed when an electoral pact saw Sinn Féin and the Nationalist Party gaining control of ten urban councils within the area due to become Northern Ireland. In Derry, Alderman Hugh O'Doherty became the first Catholic mayor of the city. His inaugural speech did little to allay the fears of the unionist population of the city: "Ireland's right to determine her own destiny will come about whether the Protestants of Ulster like it or not".[19] Irish nationalist newspaper the Derry Journal heralded the fall of unionist control over Londonderry Corporation, declaring "No Surrender - Citadel Conquered". In the June elections, thirteen rural councils in Ulster came under joint Nationalist-Sinn Féin control, as did Tyrone and Fermanagh county councils. Unionist representation in Belfast fell from 52 to 29 as a result of the Belfast Labour Party. These events and the nationalist triumphalism that came with them encouraged their hopes that partition would be ditched, whilst compounding the feeling of abandonment amongst unionists, especially in Derry.[19][20][21]

Sectarian strife began in Derry in April 1920 when an hour-long violent confrontation between Protestants and Catholics erupted at the corner of Long Tower Street, as republican prisoners were being transported to Bishop Street gaol. On the 18th, shots were fired into the Bogside and as Catholics rioted in the city centre, the RIC carried out a bayonet charge. On 14 May more trouble ensued as the RIC and IRA engaged in four-hour gun battle, which resulted in the shooting dead of the local chief of the RIC Special Branch. In response, loyalists reformed the UVF in the city and mounted roadblocks, where Catholics crossing Carlisle Bridge were mistreated, resulting in one who had returned injured from the war being killed. On 13 June, the UVF attacked Catholics at Prehen Wood, which sparked intense rioting in the city, where Long Tower Street and Bishop Street met.[19]

The violence that broke out in the city on 18 June continued for a week.[22] At least nineteen people were killed or fatally wounded during this time: 14 Catholics and five Protestants.[23] On 18 June, rioting had spread into the mainly-Protestant Waterside area of the city, where Catholic homes were burnt. The UVF, with the aid of ex-servicemen, seized control of the Guildhall and Diamond, whilst also repulsing an IRA counter-attack. Protestants living in the mainly-Catholic Bogside would be burnt out of their houses by the IRA, with two shot dead.[19] Loyalists fired from the Fountain neighborhood into adjoining Catholic streets.[24] The IRA, armed with rifles and machine-guns, occupied St Columb's College, which became the scene of intense gunfire.[23][24]

Eventually on 23 June, 1,500 British soldiers arrived in Derry to restore order, martial law was declared in the city, and a destroyer was anchored on the Foyle overlooking the Guildhall.[23] The presence of the army did little to stifle the violence as riots, shootings, and assassinations continued. Six people (four Catholics, two Protestants) were killed in the last week of June, after the army's deployment.[23] According to some sources, six Catholics were killed by British soldiers firing into the Bogside with a heavy machine-gun.[19] By the end of the trouble forty people had been killed.[19]

Belfast shipyard clearances

Belfast's Harland & Wolff shipyards in 1911

On The Twelfth (12 July) 1920, a yearly Ulster Protestant celebration, Ulster Unionist Party leader Edward Carson made a speech to thousands of Orangemen in Finaghy, near Belfast. He said "I am sick of words without actions" and he warned the British government that if it refused to adequately protect Unionists from the IRA, they would take matters into their own hands.[25] He also linked Irish republicanism with socialism and the Catholic Church.[26] Many Catholics asserted that Carson's rhetoric was partly responsible for what they believed was a "pogrom" against Belfast's Catholic minority.[27]

On 21 July 1920, when shipyard workers returned after the Twelfth holidays, a meeting of "all Unionist and Protestant workers" was called during lunch hour that day. With about 5,000 workers present, speeches were made, demanding the expulsion of all "non-loyal" workers.[28] Hours of intimidation and violence followed, in which Loyalists drove 8,000 co-workers from Harland and Wolff and other shipyards, all of them either Catholics or Protestant labour activists. Some of them were beaten,[29] or thrown into the water and pelted with rivets as they swam for their lives.[30]

The expulsion of thousands of Catholic workers from the shipyards was followed by retaliation attacks against Protestant shipyard workers while they were returning home, starting a cycle of communal violence which continued for over two years.[31] Three days of rioting followed, in which eleven Catholics and eight Protestants were killed and hundreds of people were wounded.[29] At the Falls–Shankill interface, seven Catholics and two Protestants were killed, most of them by British soldiers who were firing machine-guns in an attempt to disperse rioters.[32] One of the victims was a Catholic priest, killed in Clonard Monastery by British Army gunfire. Loyalists attempted to burn down a Catholic convent on Newtownards Road. British soldiers guarding the building opened fire, wounding 15 Protestants, three of them fatally.[32]

At other workplaces in Belfast, expulsions continued for several days, and those expelled included several hundred female textile workers. Catholics and Socialists were driven out of other large firms such as Mackies Foundry and Sirocco Engineering Works.[33] According to the Catholic Protection Committee, 11,000 Catholic shipyard, factory and mill workers had been expelled from their jobs, a tenth of Belfast's Catholic population.[34]

The leader of the Ulster Unionist Party and the soon to be Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, Sir James Craig, made his feelings on the expulsions clear when he visited the shipyards: "Do I approve of the actions you boys have taken in the past? I say yes".[35]

Banbridge burnings

On 17 July 1920, the IRA assassinated British colonel Gerald Smyth in Cork. He had told police officers to shoot civilians who did not immediately obey orders.[36] Smyth was from a wealthy Protestant family in the northern town of Banbridge, Count Down and his large funeral was held there on 21 July, the same day as the Belfast shipyard expulsions. After Smyth's funeral, about 3,000 Loyalists took to the streets. Many Catholic homes and businesses were attacked, burned and looted, despite police being present.[36] A large mob of Loyalists, some armed, attacked and tried to break into the home of a republican family. The father fired on the crowd, killing a Protestant man.[36][32] Hundreds of Catholic factory workers were also driven from their jobs, and many Catholic families fled Banbridge.[36] Calm was restored after the British Army were deployed in the town.[36] Loyalists also attacked Catholic homes in nearby Dromore, and a Protestant man was killed when police fired to disperse them.[32][37]

Lisburn burnings

Catholic-owned businesses destroyed by loyalists in Lisburn

On 22 August 1920, the IRA assassinated RIC Inspector Oswald Swanzy in the Market Square of Lisburn, County Antrim a town near Belfast, as worshippers left Sunday service.[38] A coroner's inquest in Cork had held Swanzy (among others) responsible for the killing of Tomás Mac Curtain, Cork's republican Lord Mayor.[39]

Over the next three days and nights, in an attack likened to ethnic cleansing,[40][41] Loyalist crowds looted and burned almost every Catholic business in the town, and attacked Catholic homes.[42] There is evidence the UVF helped organise the burnings.[41] Rioters attacked firemen who tried to save Catholic property,[43] and attacked the lorries of British soldiers sent to help the police.[42] A Catholic pub owner later died of gunshot wounds,[42] and a charred body was found in the ruins of a factory.[44]

Lisburn was likened to "a bombarded town in France" during the First World War.[45] A third of the town's Catholics (about 1,000 people) fled Lisburn.[45] The attacks in Lisburn and Banbridge led to a long-term decline of the Catholic populations of those towns.[46]

Damage was estimated at 810,000 pounds (in 1920 currency). Seven men were arrested and charged with rioting - five were convicted but appealed their convictions and were released.[47]

On 28 August, clashes erupted in the Marrowbone district of Belfast when Catholics attacked Protestant homes as retaliation for the burnings in Lisburn. British soldiers fired a Hotchkiss machine gun to disperse rioters. Six Catholics and a Protestant were killed in the violence.[48]

The Troubles in Ulster

During this time violence occurred in all nine counties of Ulster. Outside of the major cities/towns many attacks occurred in smaller/rural communities but were mostly limited to attacks on RIC barracks, ambushes, sniping and raids for weapons. Some large-scale attacks did occur often involving up to 200 IRA members. On 9 May 1920 approximately 200 IRA volunteers under Frank Aiken attacked the RIC barracks in Newtownhamilton, County Armagh. After a two-hour firefight, the IRA breached the barracks wall with explosives and stormed the building.[49] Another large scale battle took place on 1 June 1920 when at least 200 IRA volunteers led by Roger McCorley attacked the RIC barracks in Crossgar, County Down. They opened fire on the building, wounding two officers, and attempted to breach the walls with explosives before withdrawing. [50] In early 1921 western Donegal had seasoned Volunteers under the command of Peadar O'Donnell. During this time the west Donegal Flying Column was responsible for numerous successful attacks on RIC barracks and troop train ambushes. On 12 January 1921 the column attacked a train carrying troops with multiple military deaths reported.[51]

After the killing of police/military reprisal attacks were routinely carried out. One example of attack/reprisal occurred on the 22 February 1921 in the small town of Mountcharles, County Donegal. The IRA attacked a mixed patrol of military and police, one RIC officer was killed and a soldier was wounded during a 30 minute exchange of gunfire.[52] Later that day police and Black and Tans in Donegal town fired shots into buildings, destroyed shops and licensed premises. After midnight a mixed force of RIC, Black and Tans, USC and military returned to Mountcharles destroying businesses and setting fire to homes. That night one woman was shot and killed in Mountcharles.[53] Some areas of Ulster saw little violence - only three IRA volunteers were killed in County Cavan during the war.[54] For a more complete listing of the troubles in Ulster during this time period see Timeline of the Irish War of Independence.

Forming the Ulster Special Constabulary

In September, Unionist leader James Craig wrote to the British government demanding that a special constabulary be recruited from the ranks of the UVF. He warned, "Loyalist leaders now feel the situation is so desperate that unless the Government will take immediate action, it may be advisable for them to see what steps can be taken towards a system of organised reprisals against the rebels".[55] The Ulster Special Constabulary was formed in October and, in the words of historian Michael Hopkinson, "amounted to an officially approved UVF".[55] Irish nationalists saw the founding of this almost wholly Protestant force as the arming of the majority against the Catholic minority.[56][57]

Belfast Boycott

A notice from the Belfast Boycott Committee

In response to the expulsion of Catholic workers in Belfast, northern Sinn Féin members called for the boycott of Unionist-owned businesses and banks in the city.[58] Despite some opposition, the Dáil and its cabinet approved the boycott in August.[59] The boycott was enforced by the IRA, who halted trains and lorries and destroyed goods from these Belfast businesses.[60] It was effectively enforced only in County Monaghan, primarily due to its location near the newly-proclaimed border and Belfast. The following declaration was signed by all of Monaghan's Catholic commercial traders: "We the undersigned traders of Monaghan town, hereby pledge ourselves not to deal directly or indirectly with Belfast Unionist firms or traders until such time as adequate reparation has been made to the Catholic victims of the recent Belfast pogrom".[61] In January 1921 the Dáil agreed to support the boycott more fully, providing 35,000 pounds to the campaign.[62] By May 1921 there were 360 Belfast Boycott committees throughout Ireland, but it was enforced intermittently. The boycott had little impact on the north's three main industries—agriculture, shipbuilding and linen—as they were mainly shipped to markets outside Ireland.[59] The Belfast Boycott was eventually ended following the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921.[63]

Spring and summer 1921

After a lull, the conflict in the north intensified again in the spring of 1921. On 21 February, as reprisal for the shooting of a Special Constable, USC and UVF men burned ten Catholic homes and a priest's house in Rosslea, County Fermanagh.[64] The following month, the IRA attacked the homes of up to sixteen Special Constables in the Rosslea district, killing three and wounding several others.[65]

On 1 April, the IRA attacked an RIC barracks and a British Army post in Derry city with gunfire and grenades, killing two RIC officers.[66] On 10 April, the IRA ambushed a group of Special Constables outside a church in Creggan, County Armagh, killing one and wounding others. In reprisal, the USC attacked nationalists and burned their houses in Killylea, where the Special Constables came from.[66]

The Lord Lieutenant inspecting troops in Belfast at the opening of the Northern Ireland Parliament, June 1921

The Government of Ireland Act came into force on 3 May 1921, thus partitioning Ireland under British law.[67][68] Elections for the Northern and Southern parliaments were held on 24 May. Unionists won most seats in Northern Ireland, while republicans treated it as an election for the Dáil. The Northern Ireland parliament first met on 7 June and formed a devolved government, headed by Unionist Party leader James Craig. Irish nationalist and republican members refused to attend.[67] The following day, the IRA ambushed a USC patrol at Carrogs, near Newry. In reprisal, the Special Constables went to the nearest Catholic home and fatally shot two civilian men. The IRA then fired on the USC men from a nearby hill, killing one.[69]

On 10 June, the IRA shot three RIC officers on Belfast's Falls Road, fatally wounding Constable James Glover. He had been targeted because the IRA suspected him of being part of a group of police involved in the sectarian killings of Catholics.[70] This attack sparked violence by Loyalists. Belfast suffered three days of sectarian rioting and shooting incidents, during which at least 14 people were killed; including three Catholics taken from their homes and killed by uniformed police.[70] About 150 Catholic families were forced out of their homes.[71]

King George V addressed the ceremonial opening of the Northern parliament on 22 June, in which he called for "all Irishmen to pause, to stretch out the hand of forbearance and conciliation".[67] The next day, a train carrying the king's armed escort, the 10th Royal Hussars, was derailed by an IRA bomb at Adavoyle, County Armagh. Five soldiers and a train guard were killed, as were fifty horses. A civilian bystander was also shot dead by British soldiers.[72] On 6 July, disguised Special Constables raided homes at Altnaveigh, County Armagh, and summarily killed four Catholic civilian men.[73]

Belfast's Bloody Sunday

On 9 July 1921, a ceasefire (or truce) was agreed between representatives of the Irish Republic and the British government, to begin at noon on 11 July. Many Loyalists condemned the truce as a 'sell-out' to Republicans.[74] Hours before the ceasefire was to begin, police launched a raid against Republicans in west Belfast. The IRA ambushed them on Raglan Street, killing an officer and wounding others. This sparked a day of violence known as Belfast's Bloody Sunday. Protestant loyalists attacked Catholic neighbourhoods in west Belfast, burning homes and businesses. This led to sectarian clashes, and gun battles between police and Catholic nationalists. While the IRA was involved in some of the fighting, a rival Irish nationalist group, the Hibernians, were mainly involved on the Catholic side.[75] The USC were alleged to have driven through Catholic enclaves firing indiscriminately.[76] Twenty people were killed or fatally wounded (including twelve Catholics and six Protestants) before the truce began at noon on 11 July.[77] Almost 200 houses were badly damaged or destroyed,[76] most of them Catholic homes.[78]

A strict curfew was enforced in Belfast after the violence. As soon as the ceasefire began, the Commandant of the IRA's 2nd Northern Division, Eoin O'Duffy, was sent to Belfast to liaise with the authorities and try to maintain the truce.[79] With the tacit consent of the RIC, he organized IRA patrols in Catholic neighbourhoods to restore order, and announced that IRA offensive actions would end. Both Protestants and Catholics saw the truce as a victory for Republicans. Loyalists "were particularly appalled by the sight of policemen and soldiers meeting IRA officers on a semi-official basis".[79]

Anglo-Irish Treaty

The post-ceasefire talks led to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed on 6 December 1921 by representatives of the British government and Irish Republic. Under the Treaty, 'Southern Ireland' would leave the UK and become a self-governing dominion: the Irish Free State. Northern Ireland's parliament could vote it in or out of the Free State, and a commission could then redraw or confirm the provisional border. The Dáil narrowly approved the Treaty in January 1922, but it caused a serious split in the Irish nationalist movement. The anti-Treaty side argued that it copper-fastened partition; the pro-Treaty side argued that the proposed Boundary Commission would give large swathes of Northern Ireland to the Free State, leaving the remaining territory too small to be viable.[80] The pro-Treatyites formed a Provisional Government, headed by Michael Collins, to administer Southern Ireland until the Free State was established.

Early 1922

The first half of 1922 saw clashes between the IRA and USC along the new border, an IRA offensive inside Northern Ireland, sectarian violence and killings in Belfast, and tensions between the two new governments.[81]

On 14 January, Northern Ireland police arrested members of the Monaghan Gaelic football team on their way to a match in Derry. Among them were IRA volunteers with plans to free IRA prisoners from Derry Gaol.[82] In response, on the night of 7–8 February, IRA units crossed into Northern Ireland and captured almost fifty Special Constables and prominent Loyalists in counties Fermanagh and Tyrone. They were to be held as hostages for the Monaghan prisoners. Several IRA volunteers were also captured during the raids.[82] The Northern Ireland authorities responded by sealing-off many cross-border roads.[83]

On 11 February, the IRA stopped a group of armed Special Constables at Clones railway station, County Monaghan. The USC unit was travelling by train from Belfast to Enniskillen (both in Northern Ireland), but the Irish Provisional Government was unaware British forces would be crossing through its territory. The IRA called on the Special Constables to surrender for questioning, but one of them shot dead an IRA sergeant. This sparked a firefight in which four Special Constables were killed and several wounded. Five others were captured.[84] The incident threatened to set off a major confrontation between North and South, and the British government temporarily suspended the withdrawal of British troops from the South. A Border Commission was set up to mediate in any future cross-border disputes, but achieved very little.[85]

These incidents provoked retaliatory attacks by Loyalists against Catholics in Belfast, sparking further sectarian clashes. In the three days after the Clones incident, more than 30 people were killed in Belfast.[85] One of the worst atrocities occurred on 14 February, when Loyalists threw a bomb into a group of Catholic children who were playing in Weaver Street, killing four children and two mothers, and injuring 22 people.[86]

On 18 March, Northern Ireland police raided IRA headquarters in Belfast, seizing weapons and lists of IRA volunteers. The Irish Provisional Government condemned this as a breach of the truce.[87][88] Over the next week, the IRA attacked several police barracks in the North.[87] On 28 March, a column of fifty IRA volunteers crossed into the North and seized the RIC barracks in Belcoo, County Fermanagh, after a three-hour battle. Fifteen RIC officers were captured, marched across the border into the South and held captive until 18 July.[87]

One of the most infamous sectarian attacks in Belfast during this period were the McMahon killings (24 March 1922), in which five Catholic family members and an employee were shot dead by gunmen who broke into their home.[89] The gunmen were allegedly Special Constables, and it was apparently revenge for the IRA's killing of two policemen hours earlier.[90] A week later, six more Catholics were killed by Special Constables who went on a rampage in the Arnon Street killings (1 April 1922).[91] This was also believed to have been revenge for the IRA's killing of a policeman.[92][93]

IRA Northern Offensive

Michael Collins (left) inspects a soldier of the Irish National Army, 1922

In spring 1922, Michael Collins, head of the Irish Provisional Government, was behind secret plans for an IRA offensive in Northern Ireland.[94][95][96] He formed an 'Ulster Council' within the IRA, which included the commanders of its five northern divisions, to co-ordinate IRA activity in the north.[96] Collins hoped the offensive would undermine the Northern Ireland government and unite the pro-treaty and anti-treaty IRA in a shared goal.[94] The new Irish National Army secretly supplied weaponry and equipment for the offensive.[94][95]

The offensive was to begin on 2 May 1922, but most of the IRA divisions had to postpone until later in the month.[96] The 2nd Northern Division was unable to postpone and was allowed to begin operations on 2 May with attacks on police barracks in Bellaghy, Draperstown and Coalisland.[96] An RIC officer and an IRA volunteer were killed.[97] The following day, three Specials were shot dead in Ballyronan, and another was killed in an ambush of a mobile patrol at Corvanaghan.[98] These were followed by reprisal killings: on 6 May two Catholic men were shot dead at a house near Dungiven,[99] and on 10 May, Specials shot three Catholic brothers in their home in Ballyronan, killing one.[100]

The 3rd Northern Division (under the command of Seamus Woods) began operations on 18 May by raiding Musgrave Street RIC barracks in the centre of Belfast. It planned to capture armoured cars and weaponry. A unit infiltrated the barracks but had to fight their way out when guards were alerted.[96] One RIC Constable was killed and another wounded during the attack on Musgrave barracks.[101] Woods was quoted on this attack: "The whole Loyalist population is at a loss to know how such a raid could be attempted during curfew hours on the headquarters in Belfast and the largest barrack in Ireland. They are in a state of panic."[102] The IRA also carried out numerous firebomb attacks and dozens of fires blazed across Belfast.[96] After a Unionist-owned mill was burned in Desertmartin, a mob of Loyalists and police attacked and burned many Catholic homes and businesses in the village. Special Constables arrested four Catholic men at their homes outside the village and summarily executed them by the roadside.[103] The IRA also attacked Martinstown RIC barracks in County Antrim with gunfire and grenades. They ambushed a group of USC reinforcements, killing one.[104]

The campaign saw further sectarian violence in Belfast. On 19 May, 71 Catholic families were driven out of their homes and on 31 May, 78 Catholic families were driven out.[105] Sectarian attacks were not limited to one side: on 19 May workmen at a cooperage in Little Patrick Street, Belfast were lined up and asked their religion. Four Protestant workers were separated from their Catholic workmates and shot dead.[106]

On 22 May, the IRA assassinated William J. Twaddell, a Unionist Member of Parliament in Belfast. This spurred the Northern Ireland government to introduce internment (imprisonment without trial) for IRA suspects.[107] A raid on a house in Belfast uncovered a list of IRA officers in the city, and documents proving the involvement of Southern IRA leaders.[107] The USC were mobilized in huge numbers to carry out patrols and raids, and a nighttime curfew was imposed across Northern Ireland.[107] This security crackdown, underpinned by the new Special Powers Act, would cripple the IRA in Northern Ireland.[107] The staggered start to the offensive also made it easier for the Northern authorities to tackle.[96]

In early June, there were increasing attacks on the USC in south County Armagh. On 13 June, Specials took two Catholic men from their homes in the area and shot them, dumping their bodies on the roadside at Lislea.[108] On 17 June, IRA volunteers under Frank Aiken retaliated for the killings and for the sexual assault of a Catholic woman. A unit of fifty IRA volunteers ambushed a USC patrol at Drumintee, killing two. Meanwhile, in one of the most notorious incidents of the period, another IRA unit attacked nine Protestant homes at Altnaveigh, shooting dead six Protestant civilians.[109]

One of the last mass killings of the period took place in the mainly-Catholic village of Cushendall, County Antrim. On 23 June 1922, a group of Specials and British soldiers opened fire on civilians when they arrived to enforce the nightly curfew. The Specials then shot and killed three young Catholic men at close range. They claimed they were ambushed by the IRA and returned fire, but a British government inquiry concluded that this was not true. The report was not made public for almost a century.[110]

Battle of Pettigo and Belleek

Belleek Fort in 2008

During the Northern Offensive, there were clashes between the IRA and British forces in an area known as the 'Belleek-Pettigo salient'.[111] This was a triangular area of land in County Fermanagh, part of Northern Ireland but mostly cut-off from it by Lough Erne and the border.[112][113] The villages of Belleek and Pettigo both straddled the border. The IRA garrisoned these villages and also occupied the triangular strip of Northern territory.[112][113] On 27 May, a USC group was sent into the area by boat and garrisoned Magherameena Castle, near Belleek. The IRA attacked the USC, forcing them to abandon their position and withdraw to a nearby island. The IRA also ambushed a convoy of USC reinforcements, killing the lead driver and forcing the Specials to retreat.[112][114]

James Craig, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, telegrammed Winston Churchill, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to request that British troops be sent to drive out the IRA.[111] Over the next week, a large number of Specials and British troops attempted to capture Pettigo from a force of about 100 IRA volunteers, by both land and water.[112][114] British forces eventually captured Pettigo on 4 June, after a fierce battle in which they bombarded the IRA positions with artillery.[112][114] Three IRA volunteers manning machine-gun posts were killed by British shelling and gunfire; most of the other IRA volunteers retreated.[115] Belleek was captured by British troops on 8 June after a brief battle. They bombarded the old Belleek Fort, forcing its IRA garrison to retreat.[116] Although in Southern territory, British troops continued to occupy Pettigo until January 1923, and Belleek Fort until August 1924.[117][113]

The fighting heightened tensions between the Irish and British governments.[114] It was the first clash between the IRA and British troops since the truce,[111] and was the nearest the Northern IRA came to a pitched battle with the British Army.[114] It was also the last major conflict between the IRA and British forces during this period.[113]

End of the violence

By the end of June 1922, the level of violence in Belfast had fallen and the IRA's Northern Offensive had petered out.[95] There were several reasons for this. The Northern government's security crackdown and introduction of internment in late May soon crippled the IRA in Northern Ireland.[107] Within four months, 446 Irish republicans/nationalists had been interned and by December 1924, 700 had been interned.[118][119] The numerical superiority of the USC (19,400 members in the A and B Specials) also proved an insurmountable obstacle for the northern IRA.[120] Irish nationalists in the South became distracted by the deepening split between pro-treaty and anti-treaty factions. In early June, the Irish Provisional Government adopted "a policy of peaceful obstruction" towards the Northern government, and Michael Collins suspended attempts to use force.[95]

The outbreak of the Irish Civil War on 28 June 1922 diverted the IRA from its campaign against the Northern government.[113] The killing of Michael Collins on 22 August dealt another blow to the northern IRA. Collins had secretly been arming and supporting the northern IRA, and with his death many northern IRA men felt their cause was unwinnable. IRA Belfast Brigade leader Roger McCorley stated, "When Collins was killed the northern element (of the IRA) gave up all hope".[121] Nationalist hopes for a large transfer of Northern territory to the newly-formed Irish Free State (via the Irish Boundary Commission) may have also led to a decrease in violence.[122]

By the end of 1922 Northern Ireland was relatively peaceful, which continued through 1924 when internment was ended and the Belfast curfew lifted.[123]

Statistics

People reading casualty lists at the Belfast Telegraph office, September 1920

Between 1920–1922, within Northern Ireland, 557 people were killed: 303 Catholics, 172 Protestants and 82 police and British Army personnel.[124] A number of IRA volunteers were also killed. Belfast suffered the most casualties, as 455 people there were killed: 267 Catholics, 151 Protestants and 37 members of the security forces.[125] The city had a higher per-capita death rate than any other part of Ireland during the Irish revolutionary period, with 40% of all conflict-related deaths.[126]

Almost 1,000 homes and businesses in Belfast were destroyed, about 80% of them Catholic and 20% Protestant.[126] More than 10,000 people became refugees, most of them Catholics who generally fled to other parts of Ireland.[126] About 8,000 Catholics and 2,000 Protestants were forced to move within Belfast alone.[126] An estimated 8,000–10,000 workers, mostly Catholics, were expelled from their jobs.[126]

Catholic relief organizations estimated that 8,700 to 11,000 Catholics had lost their jobs, that up to 23,000 Catholics had been forced from their homes and about 500 Catholic-owned businesses had been destroyed between July 1920 and July 1922.[127]

Outside Belfast, at least 104 people were killed: 61 civilians (45 Catholics and 15 Protestants) and 45 policemen and soldiers.

While both communities suffered sectarian and politically-motivated violence during this time, Catholics were disproportionately affected. Catholics made up less than one-quarter of Belfast's population but almost two-thirds of the victims.[126][128]

Defining the violence

At the time, many Irish Catholics in Belfast felt that the Loyalist violence, and the violent expulsion of thousands of Catholics from mixed neighborhoods and workplaces, was akin to a pogrom or ethnic cleansing against them.[129] Catholics were a minority in Belfast; they were about a quarter of the population but made up about two-thirds of those killed, suffered 80% of the property destruction and made up 80% of refugees.[126][128] Irish nationalists at the time generally referred to the violence as a "pogrom".[130] The American Commission on Conditions in Ireland's Interim Report 1921 stated "These riots between Protestants and Catholics in which Protestants were the aggressors partook of the character of Russian pogroms against the Jews".[131] In one author's opinion, "The Catholic population had been beaten into submission".[132]

Characterizing the violence as "pogroms" and "ethnic cleansing" has been fiercely debated by historians.[45] Historians have argued that the term "pogrom" is not appropriate given the reciprocity of violence between the communities.[133] In the context of the Belfast shipyard clearances, the use of the word "pogrom" does not strictly conform to dictionary definitions, which typically refers to pogroms against Jews in eastern Europe. Intimidation and retaliation attacks were carried out by both communities, with about third of those killed and over 20% of refugees being Protestant.[126][128]

Later 'Troubles'

There would be no further outbreaks of violence until May 1935 when there were arson attacks on Catholic homes in Upper Library Street, Belfast. In June 1935 a crowd attacked the small Catholic enclave off Great Georges Street, Belfast. By the end of the 1935 riots, thirteen people had been killed, hundreds had been wounded and 500 Catholic families had been driven from their homes.[134] Catholics referred to these incidents as pogroms against them.[135]

In The Troubles that began in 1969, some Belfast Catholics whose homes had been attacked when they were children found themselves being attacked again in what seemed a re-run of the earlier Troubles.[136] The Belfast shipyards had a long-standing reputation as Protestant "closed shops" – in 1970, 500 Catholic workers were expelled from their jobs.[137]

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Further reading

  • Bruce, Steve (1994) The Edge of the Union: the Ulster Loyalist Political Vision, Oxford: Oxford University Press
  • Cottrell, Peter, (2008), The Irish Civil War 1922-23, Osprey Pub, Oxford
  • Lawlor, Pearse (2009), The Burnings 1920, Mercier Press
  • MacEoin, Uinseann, (1981), Survivors, Argenta Publications
  • McCarthy, Pat, (2015),The Irish Revolution, 1912-23, Four Courts Press, Dublin, ISBN 978-1-84682-410-4
  • McNally Jack, (1987), Morally Good, Politically Bad, Andersontown News Publications
  • Phoenix, Eamon, (1994), Northern Nationalism Ulster Historical Foundation, Belfast
  • Thorne, Kathleen, (2014), Echoes of Their Footsteps, The Irish Civil War 1922-1924, Generation Organization, Newberg, OR, ISBN 978-0-692-245-13-2
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