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* [[Garden City Movement]]
* [[Garden City Movement]]
* [[Lebensreform]]
* [[Lebensreform]]
* [[back-to-the-land movement]]
* [[Back-to-the-land movement]]
* [[Tolstoyan movement]]
* [[Tolstoyan movement]]
* [[Land reform in Germany]]
* [[Land reform in Germany]]

Revision as of 22:22, 20 May 2023

"The settlement is the way to the healthy, strong human of the future, to a completely new, organic lifestyle and thereby closes all other questions of our times."

— Gustav Adolf Küppers[1]

"We are striving for the paradise of the earth. [...] We have recognized and banned the inhuman brutality and degeneracy of today's society."

— Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach[2]

German utopian communities are historic intentional communities that were formed in wake of various social movements from the mid 19th-century until the 1930s. Estimates show that around 100 communities were created between 1918 and 1933,[3] but data is unreliable.[4] Although communities were ideologically diverse, they shared a common sense of mission in their exemplary function for German society at large.[5]

Background

The settlement movement was grounded generally in romantizized ideas of agriculture, that had been popular since antiquity, such as Arcadia or the Garden of Eden. It was also based specifically in land reform movements in Europe in the 19th century caused by growing urbanization and ensuing poverty.

Population and urban population of Germany (1700 to 1950)

Due to technological, medical and agricultural advances, the population of the European continent doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million.[6] Approximately 70 million people emigrated from Europe, with most migrating to the United States.[7] The countries also urbanized with numerous cities worldwide surpassing populations of a million or more during this century.

The land reform movement began in Europe in the 1830s. Based on David Ricardos law of rent, english Chartisans argued that private land ownership was the cause of urban poverty. The theory was adapted through various influential social economists such as Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Karl Kautsky and Eduard Bernstein. It was popularized by Henry George in his 1879 book Progress and Poverty. His lectures lead to the creation of the Land Tenure Reform Association of John Stuart Mill that argued for the complete nationalization of land.[8]

An early proponent of land reform in Germany was Hermann Gossen with his 1854 book Die Entwicklung der Gesetze des menschlichen Verkehrs und der daraus fließenden Regeln für menschliches Handeln. The Austrian Theodor Hertzka published the utopian novel Freiland, ein soziales Zukunftsbild in 1889, promoting emigration to the "empty" new world. In opposition against this, Franz Oppenheimer published Freiland in Deutschland in 1894 arguing for cooperative-based settlements in Germany. Both agreed that it was possible to overcome capitalism not through political conquest but by cooperative economic subversion which would naturally lead to social justice.[9] Although he criticized their theories, Freiland can be seen in the tradition of Owenism and Fourierism and parallelled opinions of Marx and Engels. He also influenced Theodor Herzl, author of the founding document of Zionism, Der Judenstaat. published a direct reply to Oppenheimer in his 1902 Altneuland. In 1911 they were tasked with the creation of Merhavia by the Zionist Congress, which later became a successful Moshav and Kibbutz.

The Prussian and later German government designed official land reform programmes under the name of interior colonization, through which barren and infertile land (in the east) could be transformed into homesteads for the urban poor.

Map

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Locations of utopian communities in Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria and Switzerland. Green: currently active, Black: former

List

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.
Name Image Location Founder Founding date Ending date Notes
Eden Gemeinnützige Obstbau-Siedlung [de] Cider works built 1912 Germany 18 Lebensreformer with commercial leadership from Bruno Wilhelmi 1893 currently active First vegetarian vegetable cooperative in Germany. It had a population of around 1500 people as of 2008.
Frauensiedlung Schwarze Erde [de] Germany Elisabeth Vogler and Marie Buchhold 1925 1951 Women's cooperative inspired by the Lebensreform movement and reform pedagogy, including agriculture, workshops, a children's sanatorium and gymnastics school.
Habertshof [de] Germany Max Zink, Emil Blum 1919 1933 Religious-socialist commune and school.
Bruderhof Communities Rhon Bruderhof 1935 Germany Eberhard and Emmy Arnold 1920 1937 Religious community inspired by the German Youth Movement and Anabaptism. Had left the country entirely by 1938 due to pressure from the Nazi government. Attempts to reestablish communities in Germany were made in 1955–1961, 1988–1996 and 2002. There is currently one active Bruderhof in Germany and one in Austria.
Sinntalhof [de] Putz Family in front of the Sinntal Hof ca. 1901 Germany Bernhard Uffrecht, Ernst Putz, Gertrud and Max Bondy 1919 or 1920 1923 Temporary site of two schools as part of the pedagogic reform movement and meeting place for groups of the German Youth Movement. It was acquired and used by a Bruderhof Community from 1955 to 1961.
Heimland [de] Germany Theodor Fritsch 1908 1922 Founded as a Cooperative inspired by the Garden City and Völkisch movements. After draft into World War I only four settlers returned alive. Among rising inflation and agricultural difficulties, the community dissolved in 1922.
Siedlung Schatzacker [de] Switzerland Werner Zimmermann, Rudolf Müller, Paul Enz 1932 2007 Vegetable and land reform cooperative inspired by similar communities like Eden and Heimgarten and Silvio Gesell's principles of Freiwirtschaft.
Monte Verità Entrance gate of the Monte Verità sanatorium 1907. Switzerland Ida Hofmann, Henri Oedenkoven, Lotte Hattemer and Karl and Gustav Gräser 1899 or 1900 1940 Vegetarian vegetable cooperative, sanatorium and artist colony frequented by supporters of various alternative movements, utopian-socialists, anarchists, pacifists and artists. An attempt at a revival in the late 1970s met with limited success.
Obstbaugenossenschaft Heimgarten [de] Switzerland Julius Sponheimer, Friedrich Fellenberg 1892 or 1893 1905 Vegetable cooperative founded on the Principles of the Lebensreform movement. Settled especially by Germans who opposed the compulsory vaccination adopted in the German Reich in 1874.
Freidorf BL [de] Playground in Freidorf 1924. Switzerland Verband Schweizerischer Konsumvereine, Bernhard Jäggi, Johann Friedrich Schär 1921 currently active Cooperative village inspired by utopian socialism with around 600 inhabitants. Consumer goods and insurance were purchased collectively. A proposed second village was never build. Today it is owned by Coop.
Reformsiedlung Eden (Vienna) [de] Austria Various 1921 unknown Anarchist and land reformist cooperative built with help from various alternative communities such as the Theosophical Society and Baptists.
Hellerau Hellerau theatre built 1911. Germany Karl Schmidt 1909 currently active First garden city in Germany.
Siedlung Hellauf/Vogelhof [de] Germany Friedrich Schöll, Hans Reichert, Otto Mayr 1921 1938 A vegetable cooperative as part of the völkisch movement. Used as a reform pedagogic boarding school after 1925. After 1945 it became a school again but there was no continuation of persons or ideals.[11]
Mittgart Siedlungen Germany Willibald Hentschel c. 1904 c. 1914 Inspired by Willibald Hentschel's utopian novel Mittgart, communities of unknown size were formed somewhere in Lower-Saxony with the help of state funding, for the purpose of breeding the German race. They did not last until the First World War.[12]
Freilandsiedlung Donnershag/Deutsch-Ordens-Land [de] Germany Margart and Ernst Hunkel 1919 1924 Funded with state resources, Donnershag had 50 members and up to 350 at its height. [13][14] Differences in its publishing enterprise led to its demise in 1924. [15]
Humanitas commune Höllriegelskreuth Germany Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach 1885 1892 A small commune formed around the painter and lebensreformer Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach.
Humanitas Himmelhof commune Germany Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach, Gustav Gräser 1897 1899 A commune of up to 24 members, formed around the painter and lebensreformer Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach after the first one in Höllriegelskreuth. It also inspired the Monte Verità commune.
Worpswede Germany Mimi Stolte, Fritz Mackensen, and other painters, Heinrich Vogeler 1889 currently active Influential art colony and garden city including a Siedlerschule (school for settlers) and Leberecht Migge's Sonnenhof [de] founded in 1920. After the First World War, Vogeler became increasingly interested in ideological matters, joined the Communist Party, and emigrated to the soviet union in 1931.
Loheland [de] A building in Loheland Germany Hedwig van Rohden and Lousie Langgaard 1919 currently active Founded as a reform school and gymnastics school, today it is an anthroposophic settlement.
Freie Erde Germany 25 anarchists, among them Anton Rosinke [de] 1921 1923 Anarcho-syndicalist commune inspired by the ideas of Gustav Landauer. It was officially recognized and sublet to the squatters by the government in 1922. In 1923 the group split due to differences on matters of polygamy and only one couple remained in the house.[16]
Neue Gemeinschaft Germany Brothers Heinrich and Julius Hart and Gustav Landauer 1900 1904 Anarcho-communist commune.

Categorization

There has been no clear consensus on the exact assignment of settlements into categories. Ulrich Linse separates the spectrum of settlement attempts into a social reform period and lebensreformish (1900 to 1914/18), freideutsch-bündische (1918-1923) and bündisch-jugendbewegte (1923-1933) phases.[17] Gustav Küppers categorizes settlements by biological, world-view, political, social, aesthetic and theoretic-pedagogical principles.[18] Gustav Heinecke separates them into völkisch-imperialist and purely religious settlements.[19] Georg Becker names religious and religious-socialist (Habertshof, Bruderhof, Neusonnenfeld, Vogelhof), anti-semitic völkisch (Donnershag), communist (Barkenhof) and anarcho-syndicalist (Freie Erde) communes.[20] Christoph Conti sees religious spirit in all settlements and categorizes them furthermore into political left, right, christian and women's settlements.[21]

Interpretation of Success

Most scholars agree that settlements were short lived due to economic difficulties, lack of agricultural training and ideological quarrels within groups.[22][23] However, the ideological success of settlements has been controversial. Bernd Wedemeyer-Kolwe describes four lines of interpretation which roughly follow and build on each other chronologically:

Early scholarship from the 1960s onwards saw reform movements as ersatz religion and compensation of the bourgeois middle class, which was loosing political influence between growing capitalist magnates and under pressure from a rising working class. Settlements, then, were a romantic-utopian escapism from mass industrialization into the personal and individual.[24]

Building on this, researchers of the 1970s and 1980s increasingly saw aspects of socio-political protest incorporated into the allegedly private reform movements. This bourgeois-anti-bourgeois paradox was extensively examined in scholarship from then on and later became seen as an essential character of modernism, because "modernity stands in its essence continually in opposition to itself".[25]

Finally, a majority of contemporary scholars now view the reform movements not as escape from or protest against modernity, but instead its very forerunners. Wedemeyer-Kolwe points out that this also adequately reflects the self-perception of those people involved in the 19th century reform movements, who thought themselves "rational, modern and progressive".[26]

According to another fringe interpretation presented by Barlösius[27] and Wedemeyer-Kolwe, the reform movements allowed members of a newly developing middle class to assimilated themselves into and absorb the former bourgeois lifestyle and values, which became the new mainstream in the early 20th century.[28] Eisenberg also observed this in the history of association football.[29]

There has been no updated overview on the settlement aspect of German 19th century reform movements in particular since the handbook of 1998.[30] Furthermore, "interpretations of the historic phenomenon in its global context are still missing".[31]

Influence

In the 1960s, there was a resurgence of intentional communities, beginning with Kommune 1 in Berlin. Seemingly unaware of the previous movement, researchers then became interested in historic predecessors.[32] Communities continue to be ideologically varied. Thus, in the 1990s, the change of millennia brought another wave of interest in sustainability due to widespread fears of ecological collapse.[33] There is a network of contemporary left-political communes in Germany called "Kommuja"[34] with about 40 member groups (May 2023). Similarly, there are contemporary settlements on the political-right with a focus on organic agriculture, nationalism and eugenics,[35][36][37] also influenced by Anastasianism. In an Interview, Elisabeth Siebert estimates that there are at least 17 such settlements in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.[38]

See also

References

  1. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 124.
  2. ^ Opitz, Manuel (2018). "Künstler, Kulturrebell, Kommunarde:Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach" [Artist, cultural rebel, communard: Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach] (in German). Hamburg: DER SPIEGEL Geschichte. Retrieved 2022-01-15.
  3. ^ Conti 1984, p. 66-149.
  4. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 132.
  5. ^ Feuchter-Schawelka 1998, p. 232.
  6. ^ "Modernization – Population Change". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009.
  7. ^ The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration? Archived 2010-07-04 at the Wayback Machine. Migration News. December 1996.
  8. ^ Meyer-Renschhausen & Berger 1998, p. 265.
  9. ^ Meyer-Renschhausen & Berger 1998, p. 267.
  10. ^ Exact location unknown
  11. ^ "Historie". Vogelhof Seminare. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  12. ^ Weingart 1984, p. 179.
  13. ^ Conti 1984, p. 123.
  14. ^ "Zeitgeschichte in Hessen . Daten . Fakten . Hintergründe". Landesgeschichtliches Informationssystem Hessen. Retrieved 2023-01-03.
  15. ^ Feuchter-Schawelka 1998, p. 234.
  16. ^ Feuchter-Schawelka 1998, p. 239.
  17. ^ Linse 1983.
  18. ^ Küppers 1933.
  19. ^ Heinecke 1978.
  20. ^ Becker 1930.
  21. ^ Conti 1984.
  22. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 241 f.
  23. ^ Fuchs, Manfred (1957). Probeleme des Wirtschaftsstils von Lebensgemeinschaften (in German).
  24. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 159 f.
  25. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 160 f.
  26. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 162.
  27. ^ Barlösius, Eva (1997). Naturgemäße Lebensführung: Zur Geschichte der Lebensreform um die Jahrhundertwende (in German).
  28. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 163.
  29. ^ Eisenberg, Christiane (1999). "English sports" und deutsche Bürger: Eine Gesellschaftgechichte 1800-1939 (in German).
  30. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 13.
  31. ^ Vanja, Christina (2018-12-05). "Review". Historische Zeitschrift. 307 (3): 870–871. doi:10.1515/hzhz-2018-1578. In der Tat steht eine überzeugende Gesamtdeutung des historischen Phänomens der Lebensreformbewegung insbesondere im internationalen Vergleich noch aus.
  32. ^ Wedemeyer-Kolwe 2017, p. 158.
  33. ^ Grober 1998, p. 8.
  34. ^ "Kommuja-Netzwerk". kommuja.de (in German). Retrieved 28 September 2010.
  35. ^ Freires, Horst (2020-07-29). "Rechte Siedlungsträume im Osten". Endstation Rechts (in German). Retrieved 2023-05-08.
  36. ^ Förster, Andreas (2015-09-23). "Siedler auf befreiter Scholle". Der Freitag (in German). Retrieved 2016-09-04.
  37. ^ Röpke, Andrea (2012-08-24). "Braune Biokost - Rechte Siedler im Nordosten". NDR (in German). Archived from the original on 2016-12-02. Retrieved 2013-03-01.
  38. ^ "Völkische Enklaven nach NS-Vorbild mitten in Deutschland: Interview mit Elisabeth Siebert". Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (in German). 2015-09-10. Retrieved 2023-05-08.

Further reading

  • Wedemeyer-Kolwe, Bernd (2017). Aufbruch: Die Lebensreform in Deutschland (in German). Darmstadt: Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 978-3-8053-5067-9.
  • Grober, Ulrich (1998). Ausstieg in die Zukunft: eine Reise zu Ökosiedlungen, Energie-Werkstätten und Denkfabriken (in German). Berlin: Links. ISBN 3-86153-159-3.
  • Feuchter-Schawelka, Anne (1998). "Siedlungs- und Landkommune-Bewegung". In Kerbs, Diethart; Reulecke, Jürgen (eds.). Handbuch der deutschen Reformbewegungen 1880-1933. Wuppertal: Peter Hammer Verlag. pp. 227–244. ISBN 3-87294-787-7.
  • Meyer-Renschhausen, Elisabeth; Berger, Hartwig (1998). "Bodenreform". In Kerbs, Diethart; Reulecke, Jürgen (eds.). Handbuch der deutschen Reformbewegungen 1880-1933. Wuppertal: Peter Hammer Verlag. pp. 265–276. ISBN 3-87294-787-7.
  • Conti, Christoph (1984). Abschied vom Bürgertum. Alternative Bewegungen in Deutschland von 1890 bis heute (in German). Reinbeck.
  • Weingart, Peter (1984). "Eugenic Utopias: Blueprints for the Rationalization of Human Evolution". In Mendelsohn, Everett; Nowotny, Helga (eds.). Nineteen eighty-four: science between utopia and dystopia. Dodrecht: D. Reidel publishing company. pp. 173–188. ISBN 90-277-1719-2.
  • Linse, Ulrich (1983). Zurück, o Mensch, zur Mutter Erde. Landkommunen in Deutschland 1890 - 1933 (in German). Munich: dtv. ISBN 978-3423029346.
  • Heinecke, Gustav (1978). Frühe Kommunen in Deutschland. Versuche neuen Zusammenlebens - Jugendbewegung und Novemberrevolution 1919 - 1924 (in German). Bielefeld: Zündhölzchen.
  • Mosse, George L. (2021) [1964]. "Germanic Utopias". The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 109–126. ISBN 9780299332044.
  • Küppers, Gustav (1933). Deutsche Siedlung. Idee und Wirklichkeit. Gesamtdarstellung des deutschen Siedlungswesens in allen Formen und Spielarten. Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Berlin.
  • Becker, George (1930). Die Siedlung der deutschen Jugendbewegung: Eine soziologische Untersuchung. Universität Köln.
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