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== Competition ==
== Competition ==
Agonistic behaviors amongst animals for resources have been studied by many researchers, and specifically the interaction of weapons during these exchanges of behavior.<ref name=":02"/> Not only the presence of weaponry, but also specific characteristics of the weaponry itself can have an effect on the outcome of competition in determining the winners and losers from an intraspecies competition.<ref name=":13"/> The display of weaponry has been found to be favored in animals that frequently engage in contest as a mechanism to decrease the costs of aggression.<ref name=":13" /> Displays are considered any behavior that is used to show a species' fighting ability without any physical contact. This behavior allows for rivals to have the chance to assess the weaponry that is present to determine whether to engage in physical agonistic behavior or not.<ref name=":02" />
Agonistic behaviors amongst animals for resources have been studied by many researchers, and specifically the interaction of weapons during these exchanges of behavior.<ref name=":02"/> Not only the presence of weaponry, but also specific characteristics of the weaponry itself can have an effect on the outcome of competition in determining the winners and losers from an intraspecies competition.<ref name=":13"/> The display of weaponry has been found to be favored in animals that frequently engage in contest as a mechanism to decrease the costs of aggression.<ref name=":13" /> Displays are considered any behavior that is used to show a species' fighting ability without any physical contact. This behavior allows for rivals to have the chance to assess the weaponry that is present to determine whether to engage in physical agonistic behavior or not.<ref name=":02" />

== Selection ==
Darwin's idea of sexual selection has been a main focus on weaponry and antagonist interactions between animals, with males that present the largest weapons having the highest probability of winning.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Emberts |first1=Zachary |last2=St. Mary |first2=Colette M. |last3=Herrington |first3=Tyler J. |last4=Miller |first4=Christine W. |date=2018-05-03 |title=Males missing their sexually selected weapon have decreased fighting ability and mating success in a competitive environment |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-018-2494-6 |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |language=en |volume=72 |issue=5 |pages=81 |doi=10.1007/s00265-018-2494-6 |s2cid=253820366 |issn=1432-0762|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Sexual selection has been credited by previous researchers as the main influence of nature's extravagant weaponry for the purpose of attractive females.<ref name=":13" /> During agonistic interactions, there is the potential risk of weaponry lost resulting in a possible decrease in an individual's fighting ability and overall fitness.<ref name=":2" />


== Female Weaponry ==
== Female Weaponry ==

Revision as of 21:29, 3 May 2024

This is a page I use to create articles, not only the one about Pär Bengtsson.
I figured it would be easier to do that then make and delete a new page each time.

1970 Colombian Football

Campeonato Profesional
Season1970
ChampionsDeportivo Cali (4th title)
Copa LibertadoresDeportivo Cali
Junior
Top goalscorerJosé María Ferrero and Walter Sossa (27 goals)
← 1969
1971 →

The 1970 Campeonato Profesional was the 22nd season of Colombia's top-flight football league. 14 teams competed against one another. Deportivo Cali won their fourth league title.[1]

Teams

Team City Stadium
América de Cali Cali Estadio Olímpico Pascual Guerrero
Atlético Bucaramanga Bucaramanga Estadio Alfonso López
Atlético Nacional Medellín Estadio Atanasio Girardot
Cúcuta Deportivo Cúcuta Estadio General Santander
Deportes Quindío Armenia Estadio San José de Armenia
Deportes Tolima Ibagué Estadio Serrano de Ávila
Deportivo Cali Cali Estadio Olímpico Pascual Guerrero
Deportivo Pereira Pereira Estadio Alberto Mora Mora
Independiente Medellín Medellín Estadio Atanasio Girardot
Junior Barranquilla Estadio Romelio Martínez
Millonarios Bogotá Estadio El Campín
Once Caldas Manizales Estadio Fernando Londoño y Londoño
Santa Fe Bogotá Estadio El Campín
Unión Magdalena Santa Marta Estadio Eduardo Santos

Torneo Apertura

Pos Team Pld W D L GF GA GD Pts Qualification or relegation
1 Santa Fe 26 14 9 3 40 21 +19 37 Quadrangular Final
2 Junior 26 12 9 5 41 30 +11 33
3 Once Caldas 26 12 7 7 43 43 0 31
4 Independiente Medellín 26 12 6 8 32 29 +3 30
5 Cúcuta Deportivo 26 10 8 8 43 30 +13 28
6 Millonarios 26 8 11 7 41 29 +12 27
7 Deportivo Cali 26 8 10 8 33 30 +3 26
8 Atlético Nacional 26 10 6 10 40 43 −3 26
9 Unión Magdalena 26 7 11 8 30 36 −6 25
10 América de Cali 26 8 8 10 30 34 −4 24
11 Deportes Quindío 26 3 15 8 24 37 −13 21
12 Atlético Bucaramanga 26 7 6 13 30 42 −12 20
13 Deportes Tolima 26 4 11 11 27 37 −10 19
14 Deportivo Pereira 26 3 11 12 30 43 −13 17
Source: RSSSF

Torneo Finalización

Pos Team Pld W D L GF GA GD Pts Qualification or relegation
1 Deportivo Cali 26 13 11 2 34 15 +19 37 Quadrangular Final
2 Cúcuta Deportivo 26 15 3 8 47 38 +9 33
3 Unión Magdalena 26 12 6 8 38 32 +6 30
4 Santa Fe 26 9 11 6 36 31 +5 29
5 América de Cali 26 9 11 6 46 29 +17 29
6 Millonarios 26 11 7 8 34 28 +6 29
7 Independiente Medellín 26 9 8 9 28 30 −2 26
8 Once Caldas 26 9 7 10 30 29 +1 25
9 Junior 26 8 7 11 44 46 −2 23
10 Atlético Bucaramanga 26 7 9 10 27 34 −7 23
11 Deportes Tolima 26 6 10 10 39 44 −5 22
12 Deportes Quindío 26 7 7 12 19 31 −12 21
13 Deportivo Pereira 26 8 4 14 32 48 −16 20
14 Atlético Nacional 26 3 10 13 28 43 −15 16
Source: RSSSF

Quadrangular Final

Pos Team Pld W D L GF GA GD Pts Qualification or relegation
1 Deportivo Cali (C) 6 2 3 1 7 3 +4 7 Qualified for 1971 Copa Libertadores
2 Junior 6 2 3 1 9 6 +3 7
3 Santa Fe 6 1 5 0 8 6 +2 7
4 Cúcuta Deportivo 6 0 3 3 5 14 −9 3
Source: RSSSF
(C) Champions


 Campeonato Profesional
1970 Champion 
Deportivo Cali
4th title

Jose Maria Ferrero

Jose Maria Ferrero
Personal information
Place of birth Buenos Aires
Position(s) Striker
Senior career*
Years Team Apps (Gls)
1957-1960 Racing Club 20 (9)
1960-1966 Newell's Old Boys 58 (13)
1967-1969 Millionarios 117 (85)
1954-1955 Deportivo Cucuta 42 (27)
*Club domestic league appearances and goals, correct as of 7 May 2020

Jose Maria Ferrero was an Argentinian footballer who played as a striker.[2]

1951 Nascar

Pos. Driver Races Points
DAB CHA MOB GAR OCC ARZ NWS MAR CAN CLM COL DAY GAR GRI BAI PIT WEA MON ALT DET TOL MOR GRN DAR COL MAC LAN CHA DAY WIL OCC THO SHI MAR OAK NWS HAN JCK ATL GAR MOB
0 Seychelles Placeholder 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 10000

Weapon

The impala uses horns to compete for resources.

In biology, a weapon is a specialized morphological trait that is used by animals to compete with other individuals for resources.[3] Most commonly, the term refers to structures that males to fight other males off for access to mates.[4] Horns and antlers are the most recognizable weapons, though even within those categories, the structure of weapons are often unique to the species, with a wide variety of designs observed across many genera.[5]

Most weapons evolve through sexual selection, as they are most often used to fight off competitors for access to mates.[5] A mate is won in battle either by a male chasing off a fellow competitor or killing it, usually leaving the victor as the only option for the female to reproduce with, favoring males with particularly effective weaponry.[6] More broadly, weaponry in animals may consist of any specialized morphology that is present within an organism to aid in its advantage against rivals.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page). Many hypotheses have been produced by researchers to possibly explain the mechanisms behind the evolution of weapons, as well as the rapid diversification within species.[7] 

Since Darwin's publication The Descent of Man, extensive research has been done on the presence of agonistic behavior and the usage of animal weaponry by different species.[3] Weaponry displays in animals have been found to increase their likelihood of survival in different ways, such as when interacting with other individuals or trying to find another mate, or to defend against predators.[4]

Occurrence

The horn-like projections of a chameleon are used to fight other males on tree trunks.

Weapons are common among many genera of animals. Among vertebrates, they are most often found in mammals and fish, and are also known to occur in reptiles, though far less commonly in that class. Many species of dinosaur, an extinct clade of vertebrates, also possessed weapons. Arthropods, such as arachnids and crabs, also have species that wield weapons, and they are extraordinarily widespread among insects. [7]

In mammals, weapons are common and take a number of diverse forms. They are most common among the ungulates.[7] Antlers, complex and unique weapons that are an extension of an animal's skull, are found only among male deer, ungulates who are even-toed ruminants.[8] Rhinoceroses are even-toed ungulates which have horns made of keratin; both sexes use these horns in contests with other individuals of the same species.[9] Walruses and elephants, non-ungulates, both possess elongated tusks. Apart from mammals, the only other group of land vertebrates that shows widespread adoption of weapons are the chameleons, who possess horn-like structures for fighting over access to mates.[7]

Some species of fish have weapons, though these traits are not as widespread as in mammals. Sawfish are named for their long rostrum, which can be used to inflict damage on other fish.[10] Unicornfish may also use their strange horn-like forehead protection as a weapon, although the general use of this and many similar structures in fish are still somewhat enigmatic. [7] Male salmon notably feature intraspecific competition for mates, and they use their elongated and toothy jaw to fight other males, both over access to females and over access to breeding sites.[7][11][12]

The horns of a rhinoceros beetle are an example of one of the many weapons insects possess.

Weapons are very widespread among insects, having been observed in nearly every major taxonomic group.[7] Insects possess a huge variety of weapons, often with entirely different uses and modes of action. Rhinoceros beetles, like the mammal they are named for, have large horns which they famously use to fight for mates.[13][14] Harlequin beetles have legs that are longer than their entire body, using which they protect a suitable spot for a female to lay eggs. They also posses strong mandibles to bite other males, which can include removing their legs.[15] Camel crickets use spines on their tibias for two reasons; (1) to fight other males for access to females, and (2) to pin mates as a form of coercion.[4][16] Among arthropods that are not insects, male fiddler crabs have large claws that comprise half their body mass and are used to attract mates elaborate waving displays with the claw.[17] They are also, though somewhat less commonly, used as a weapon to directly attack other males.[18][7]

Evolution

The horns that give Triceratops its name were used as weapons.

Animal weaponry is capable of drastic and rapid diversification in form, with closely related species, even within the same clade, having distinctly different weaponry.[7] One hypothesized mechanism for this is the gradual change in weaponry function from purely physical agonistic behavior, to a stronger emphasis on display, resulting in potentially more elaborate weapons. For instance, many dinosaurs may have had structures that were once weapons but were later used as ornaments to attract mates.[7] Another possible mechanism is the presence of male-male combat, with diverging lineages of animals expanding into different habitats and then fighting under different conditions. Changes in the physical contest between species in different environments may potentially drive the evolution in modified weaponry. Sites that have localized, defendable resources, like a single food or water source, or a breeding burrow, often are where species with weapons are found.[7]

Sexual selection has been a main focus on weaponry and antagonist interactions between animals, with males that present the largest weapons having the highest probability of winning.[19] Sexual selection has been credited by previous researchers as the main influence of nature's extravagant weaponry for the purpose of attractive females.[20] During agonistic interactions, there is the potential risk of weaponry lost resulting in a possible decrease in an individual's fighting ability and overall fitness.[19]

A trilobite of the genus Ceratarges, showing large spines probably used as weapons.

Most animal weapons probably emerged independently. The weapons of ungulates, for instance, are believed to have evolved independently during the Age of Mammals, and are not from an earlier, basal clade of mammals. One group that had weapons early in the history of multicellular life were the trilobites, one of the earliest arthropods, and a dominant life form in the Paleozoic.[21][7] Many species had horns or spikes which are theorized to have been used in intraspecific combat.[7] Many dinosaurs also had weapons such as spines, spikes, and plates, although the exact use of these is not known for all species—some may have been used for mating displays more than as weapons.[7]

An exception to the general independence of weapon evolution is found in stag beetles, whose common ancestor is believed to have had mandibles, much like modern stag beetles. However, that species likely had little or no sexual dimorphism in the mandible phenotype, unlike modern stag beetles, in which males usually have markedly larger mandibles than females.[22][7] Dung beetles, on the other hand, have evolved and lost their weapons many, many times over their history,[7] with the single genus Onthophagus, whose ancestor likely had horns, undergoing at least ten evolutionary events where horns were gained or lost.[23]

Competition

Agonistic behaviors amongst animals for resources have been studied by many researchers, and specifically the interaction of weapons during these exchanges of behavior.[24] Not only the presence of weaponry, but also specific characteristics of the weaponry itself can have an effect on the outcome of competition in determining the winners and losers from an intraspecies competition.[20] The display of weaponry has been found to be favored in animals that frequently engage in contest as a mechanism to decrease the costs of aggression.[20] Displays are considered any behavior that is used to show a species' fighting ability without any physical contact. This behavior allows for rivals to have the chance to assess the weaponry that is present to determine whether to engage in physical agonistic behavior or not.[24]

Female Weaponry

Since Darwin's The Descent of Man and The origin of species, research has been heavily focused on weaponry in male animals, potentially leaving out females and their possible mechanisms behind present weaponry.[25] Presence of weapons in females, and female-female competition has been seen in many species for better fitness of both sexual and social selection.[26][25] Social selection, first hypothesized by Mary Jane West-Eberhard, is a broader term that includes both sexual and non sexual behaviors to increase an individual's fitness.[25] For example, research has suggested that horns present in female bovids, may have evolved from competition for resources such as food.[26]   

References

  1. ^ "Colombia 1970". rsssf.com. Retrieved 12 Jun 2022.
  2. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20160409135101/http://www.once-onze.narod.ru/ARGENTINA/F/Fe/Ferrero_Jose_Maria.pdf
  3. ^ a b Palaoro, Alexandre V.; Peixoto, Paulo Enrique Cardoso (2022). "The hidden links between animal weapons, fighting style, and their effect on contest success: a meta-analysis". Biological Reviews. 97 (5): 1948–1966. doi:10.1111/brv.12877. ISSN 1464-7931. PMID 35790073. S2CID 250282536.
  4. ^ a b c Lane, Sarah M (2018-07-19). "What is a weapon?". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 58 (6): 1055–1063. doi:10.1093/icb/icy083. hdl:10026.1/16293. ISSN 1540-7063. PMID 30010939.
  5. ^ a b Emberts, Zachary; Hwang, Wei Song; Wiens, John J. (2021-01-27). "Weapon performance drives weapon evolution". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 288 (1943): 2020–2898. doi:10.1098/rspb.2020.2898.
  6. ^ Krebs, J. R., and Nicholas B. Davies. "Sexual Selection, Sperm Competition and Sexual Conflict." An Introduction to Behavioral Ecology. 4th ed. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 2012.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Emlen, Douglas J. (2008-12-01). "The Evolution of Animal Weapons". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 39 (1): 387–413. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.39.110707.173502. ISSN 1543-592X.
  8. ^ Lincoln, G. A. (March 1992). "Biology of antlers". Journal of Zoology. 226 (3): 517–528. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1992.tb07495.x.
  9. ^ Berger, Joel; Cunningham, Carol (June 1998). "Natural variation in horn size and social dominance and their importance to the conservation of black rhinoceros". Conservation Biology. 12 (3): 708–711.
  10. ^ Wueringer, Barbara E.; Squire, Lyle; Collin, S. P. (2009-03-19). "The biology of extinct and extant sawfish (Batoidea: Sclerorhynchidae and Pristidae)". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 19: 445–464. doi:10.1007/s11160-009-9112-7.
  11. ^ Fleming, Ian A. (Sep 1994). "Captive breeding and the conservation of wild salmon populations". Conservation Biology. 8 (3): 886–888.
  12. ^ Quinn, Thomas P. (Mar 1999). "Variation in Pacific salmon reproductive behaviour associated with species, sex and levels of competition". Behaviour. 136 (2): 179–204.
  13. ^ Karino, Kenji; Niiyama, Hisatsugu; Chiba, Mutsumi (2005). "Horn length is the determining factor in the outcomes of escalated fights among male Japanese horned beetles, Allomyrina dichotoma L.(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)". Journal of Insect Behavior. 18: 805–815. doi:10.1007/s10905-005-8741-5.
  14. ^ Buchalski, Benjamin; Gutierrez, Eric; Emlen, Douglas; Lavine, Laura; Swanson, Brook (15 October 2019). "Variation in an Extreme Weapon: Horn Performance Differences across Rhinoceros Beetle (Trypoxylus dichotomus) Populations". Insects. 10 (10): 346. doi:10.3390/insects10100346. PMC 6835817. PMID 31618906.
  15. ^ Zeh, David W.; Zeh, Jeanne A.; Tavakilian, Gerard (1992). "Sexual Selection and Sexual Dimorphism in the Harlequin Beetle Acrocinus longimanus". Biotropica. 24 (1): 86–96. doi:10.2307/2388476. JSTOR 2388476.
  16. ^ Haley, Estenia L.; Gray, David A. (2011-11-09). "Mating Behavior and Dual-Purpose Armaments in a Camel Cricket". Ethology. 118 (1): 49–56.
  17. ^ Perez, D. M., Rosenberg, M. S., and Pie, M. R., 2012, The evolution of waving displays in fiddler crabs (Uca spp., Crustacea: Ocypodidae): Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, v. 106, p. 307-315.
  18. ^ Callander, S., Kahn, A. T., Maricic, T., Jennions, M. D., and Backwell, P. R. Y., 2013, Weapons or mating signals? Claw shape and mate choice in a fiddler crab: Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, v. 67, p. 1163-1167.
  19. ^ a b Emberts, Zachary; St. Mary, Colette M.; Herrington, Tyler J.; Miller, Christine W. (2018-05-03). "Males missing their sexually selected weapon have decreased fighting ability and mating success in a competitive environment". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 72 (5): 81. doi:10.1007/s00265-018-2494-6. ISSN 1432-0762. S2CID 253820366.
  20. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference :13 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ^ Aria, Cédric (2022-04-26). "The origin and early evolution of arthropods". Biological Reviews. 97 (5): 1786–1809. doi:10.1111/brv.12864.
  22. ^ Hosoya, Tadatsugu; Araya, Kunio (2005). "Phylogeny of Japanese stag beetles (Coleoptera: Lucanidae) inferred from 16S mtrRNA gene sequences, with reference to the evolution of sexual dimorphism of mandibles". Zoological Science. 22 (12): 1305–1318. doi:10.2108/zsj.22.1305.
  23. ^ Emlen, Douglas J.; Marangelo, Jennifer; Ball, Bernard; Cunningham, Clifford W. (2005). "Diversity in the Weapons of Sexual Selection: Horn Evolution in the beetle genus Onthophagus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)". Evolution. 59 (5): 1060–1084. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb01044.x.
  24. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference :02 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  25. ^ a b c Tobias, Joseph A.; Montgomerie, Robert; Lyon, Bruce E. (2012-08-19). "The evolution of female ornaments and weaponry: social selection, sexual selection and ecological competition". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 367 (1600): 2274–2293. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0280. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 3391421. PMID 22777016.
  26. ^ a b Stankowich, Theodore; Caro, Tim (2009). "Evolution of Weaponry in Female Bovids". Proceedings: Biological Sciences. 276 (1677): 4329–4334. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.1256. ISSN 0962-8452. JSTOR 40506066. PMC 2817105. PMID 19759035.

If I want to add music

{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \key cis \minor \time 4/4 a16 cis' fis8 e \clef bass \key cis \minor } }
{ \override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \relative c' { \clef treble \key c \major \time 4/4 e16 c a bis r32 a16 bis r32 b16 c fis r32 c16 a gis r32 \clef treble \key e \major \time 4/4 cis a dis32 dis16 r32 b16 r32 e16 a g r8 eis16 r32 a16 dis r32 \clef treble \key cis \major \time 4/4 dis,16 fis bis, eis r32 bis16 r32 dis16 ais cis32 cis16 eis r32 b16 r4 \clef guitar\key c \major } }
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