Free Breakfast for Children: Difference between revisions
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[[File:NMAAHC-2012 46 20 1001.jpg|thumb|Huey P. Newton & Bobby Seale, founders of The Black Panther Party pictured in Oakland, CA. 1971]] |
[[File:NMAAHC-2012 46 20 1001.jpg|thumb|Huey P. Newton & Bobby Seale, founders of The Black Panther Party pictured in Oakland, CA. 1971]] |
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[[File:Black Panther Party Free Breakfast.jpg|thumb|The flyer was released in June 1970, and it informs about the October 1970 opening of the new location of the party's free breakfast program for children.]] |
[[File:Black Panther Party Free Breakfast.jpg|thumb|The flyer was released in June 1970, and it informs about the October 1970 opening of the new location of the party's free breakfast program for children.|432x432px]] |
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The '''Free Breakfast for School Children Program''', or the '''People’s Free Food Program''', was a community service program run by the [[Black Panther Party]] that focused on providing free breakfast for children before school. The program began in January 1969 at Father Earl A. Neil's St. Augustine's Episcopal Church, located in West Oakland, California<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|author=Bloom, Joshua|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/966308767|title=Black against empire : the history and politics of the Black Panther Party|date=25 October 2016|isbn=978-0-520-29328-1|oclc=966308767}}</ref> and spread throughout the nation. This program was an early manifestation of the social mission envisioned by Black Panther Party founders [[Huey P. Newton]] and [[Bobby Seale]] along with their founding of the Oakland Community School, which provided high-level education to 150 children from impoverished urban neighborhoods. The breakfasts formed the core of what became known as the party's Survival Programs.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru">{{cite book |last1=Self |first1=Robert |title=American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland |publisher=Princeton University Press, 2003 |pages=231}}</ref> Inspired by contemporary research about the essential role of breakfast for optimal schooling and the belief that alleviating hunger and poverty was necessary for [[Black Power movement|Black liberation]], the Panthers cooked and served food to the poor inner city youth of the area. The service created community centers in various cities for children and parents to simultaneously eat and learn more about black liberation and the Black Panther Party's efforts. |
The '''Free Breakfast for School Children Program''', or the '''People’s Free Food Program''', was a community service program run by the [[Black Panther Party]] that focused on providing free breakfast for children before school. The program began in January 1969 at Father Earl A. Neil's St. Augustine's Episcopal Church, located in West Oakland, California<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|author=Bloom, Joshua|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/966308767|title=Black against empire : the history and politics of the Black Panther Party|date=25 October 2016|isbn=978-0-520-29328-1|oclc=966308767}}</ref> and spread throughout the nation. This program was an early manifestation of the social mission envisioned by Black Panther Party founders [[Huey P. Newton]] and [[Bobby Seale]], along with their founding of the Oakland Community School, which provided high-level education to 150 children from impoverished urban neighborhoods. The breakfasts formed the core of what became known as the party's Survival Programs.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru">{{cite book |last1=Self |first1=Robert |title=American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland |publisher=Princeton University Press, 2003 |pages=231}}</ref> Inspired by contemporary research about the essential role of breakfast for optimal schooling and the belief that alleviating hunger and poverty was necessary for [[Black Power movement|Black liberation]], the Panthers cooked and served food to the [[Poverty|poor]] [[inner city]] youth of the area. The service created community centers in various cities for children and parents to simultaneously eat and learn more about [[Black power movement|black liberation]] and the Black Panther Party's efforts. |
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== History == |
== History == |
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The program was initiated in January 1969 at St. Augustine's Episcopal Church in [[West Oakland, Oakland, California|West Oakland, California]]. Two months later, in March 1969, the Black Panther Party opened its second Free Breakfast Program for Children at the Sacred Heart Church in San Francisco, California.<ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=The Moral Bases of the Black Panther Party's Breakfast Program, Johnson's Head Start and Blair's Sure Start : A Critical Comparison|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781472549303.ch-010|work=Remoralizing Britain? : Political, Ethical and Theological Perspectives on New Labour|year=2009|publisher=Continuum|doi=10.5040/9781472549303.ch-010|isbn=978-0-8264-4414-1|access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> The program became so popular that by the end of the year, the Panthers set up kitchens in cities across the US, claiming to have fed 20,000 children in 1969.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Black Panther Party, Sacramento |date=October 24, 1969 |title=Sacramento Breakfast |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/pubs/black-panther/03n24-oct%204%201969.pdf |access-date=January 25, 2024 |work=The Black Panther |pages=7}}</ref> Between 1969 and 1971, at least 36 Free Breakfast for Kids programs were running nationwide.<ref name=":1"/> |
The program was initiated in January 1969 at St. Augustine's Episcopal Church in [[West Oakland, Oakland, California|West Oakland, California]]. Two months later, in March 1969, the Black Panther Party opened its second Free Breakfast Program for Children at the Sacred Heart Church in San Francisco, California.<ref name=":6">{{Citation|title=The Moral Bases of the Black Panther Party's Breakfast Program, Johnson's Head Start and Blair's Sure Start : A Critical Comparison|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781472549303.ch-010|work=Remoralizing Britain? : Political, Ethical and Theological Perspectives on New Labour|year=2009|publisher=Continuum|doi=10.5040/9781472549303.ch-010|isbn=978-0-8264-4414-1|access-date=2021-11-19}}</ref> The program became so popular that by the end of the year, the Panthers set up kitchens in cities across the US, claiming to have fed 20,000 children in 1969.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Black Panther Party, Sacramento |date=October 24, 1969 |title=Sacramento Breakfast |url=https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/pubs/black-panther/03n24-oct%204%201969.pdf |access-date=January 25, 2024 |work=The Black Panther |pages=7}}</ref> Between 1969 and 1971, at least 36 Free Breakfast for Kids programs were running nationwide.<ref name=":1"/> |
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The Free Breakfast Program quickly became the central organizing activity of the Black Panther Party. The reach and success of the program highlighted the inadequacies of the federal government's then-flagging and under-resourced lunch programs in public schools across the country. The program allowed the children of West Oakland's poor neighborhoods to eat a healthy nourishing meal in a safe, supportive environment before school, optimizing their ability to learn.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru"/> The party used the program to educate children and their families about anti-capitalism, Black pride, and developing revolutionary consciousness.<ref name=":5">{{Citation|last=Hassberg|first=Analena Hope|title=Nurturing the Revolution|date=2020-10-27|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5749/j.ctv182jtk0.6|work=Black Food Matters|pages=82–106|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|doi=10.5749/j.ctv182jtk0.6|isbn=978-1-4529-6193-4|s2cid=228942758|access-date=2021-04-06}}</ref> Many of these programs were held in predominantly Black neighborhoods but also served children of other ethnicities. The program was mainly run by volunteers—both party members and non-affiliated community members, most of them women. Those working closely in the program made sure that the free breakfasts were a concrete assistance to the city's poor communities. They also shaped the program to be a powerful symbol of racial injustice and ghetto marginalization in America by teaching liberation lessons while children ate their meal.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru"/> Volunteers would start setting up and preparing food around 6 am, and served the meal from 7-8:30. Most programs took place in churches, schools, or community centers. A typical breakfast often included some combination of bacon, eggs, grits, hotcakes, toast, sausage, and a glass of juice or milk.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Potorti|first=Mary|date=March 2017|title="Feeding the Revolution": the Black Panther Party, Hunger, and Community Survival|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12111-017-9345-9|journal=Journal of African American Studies|volume=21|issue=1|pages=85–110|doi=10.1007/s12111-017-9345-9|s2cid=151621603|issn=1559-1646}}</ref> Various chapters would also provide transportation for children, from home to the chapter's Free Breakfast site, then to school. |
The Free Breakfast Program quickly became the central organizing activity of the Black Panther Party. The reach and success of the program highlighted the inadequacies of the federal government's then-flagging and under-resourced [[National School Lunch Act|lunch programs in public schools]] across the country. The program allowed the children of West Oakland's poor neighborhoods to eat a healthy nourishing meal in a safe, supportive environment before school, optimizing their ability to learn.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru"/> The party used the program to educate children and their families about [[anti-capitalism]], [[Black pride]], and developing revolutionary consciousness.<ref name=":5">{{Citation|last=Hassberg|first=Analena Hope|title=Nurturing the Revolution|date=2020-10-27|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5749/j.ctv182jtk0.6|work=Black Food Matters|pages=82–106|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|doi=10.5749/j.ctv182jtk0.6|isbn=978-1-4529-6193-4|s2cid=228942758|access-date=2021-04-06}}</ref> Many of these programs were held in predominantly Black neighborhoods but also served children of other ethnicities. The program was mainly run by volunteers—both party members and non-affiliated community members, most of them women. Those working closely in the program made sure that the free breakfasts were a concrete assistance to the city's poor communities. They also shaped the program to be a powerful symbol of [[Racial inequality in the United States|racial injustice]] and [[Ghetto|ghetto marginalization]] in America by teaching liberation lessons while children ate their meal.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru"/> Volunteers would start setting up and preparing food around 6 am, and served the meal from 7-8:30. Most programs took place in churches, schools, or community centers. A typical breakfast often included some combination of bacon, eggs, grits, hotcakes, toast, sausage, and a glass of juice or milk.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Potorti|first=Mary|date=March 2017|title="Feeding the Revolution": the Black Panther Party, Hunger, and Community Survival|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12111-017-9345-9|journal=Journal of African American Studies|volume=21|issue=1|pages=85–110|doi=10.1007/s12111-017-9345-9|s2cid=151621603|issn=1559-1646}}</ref> Various chapters would also provide transportation for children, from home to the chapter's Free Breakfast site, then to school. |
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== Black Panther Party's Survival Programs == |
== Black Panther Party's Survival Programs == |
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The Free Breakfast for Children Program was one among more than 60 community social programs created by the Black Panther Party.<ref name=":2" /> They were renamed Survival Programs in 1971.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Churchill |first1=Ward |title=Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party: A New Look at the Black Panthers and Their Legacy |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=978-1-135-29832-6 |editor1-last=Cleaver |editor1-first=Kathleen |location=Hoboken |page=87 |chapter='To Disrupt, Discredit and Destroy' The FBI's Secret War against the Black Panther Party |author-link1=Ward Churchill |access-date=2020-11-11 |editor2-last=Katsiaficas |editor2-first=George |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_tNQAwAAQBAJ&q=%22Free%20Breakfast%20for%20Children%22%20black%20panther&pg=PA87 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215211429/https://books.google.com/books?id=_tNQAwAAQBAJ&q=%22Free+Breakfast+for+Children%22+black+panther&pg=PA87 |archive-date=2021-02-15 |url-status=live}}</ref> These were operated by party members under the slogan " |
The Free Breakfast for Children Program was one among more than 60 community social programs created by the Black Panther Party.<ref name=":2" /> They were renamed Survival Programs in 1971.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Churchill |first1=Ward |title=Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party: A New Look at the Black Panthers and Their Legacy |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=978-1-135-29832-6 |editor1-last=Cleaver |editor1-first=Kathleen |location=Hoboken |page=87 |chapter='To Disrupt, Discredit and Destroy' The FBI's Secret War against the Black Panther Party |author-link1=Ward Churchill |access-date=2020-11-11 |editor2-last=Katsiaficas |editor2-first=George |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_tNQAwAAQBAJ&q=%22Free%20Breakfast%20for%20Children%22%20black%20panther&pg=PA87 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215211429/https://books.google.com/books?id=_tNQAwAAQBAJ&q=%22Free+Breakfast+for+Children%22+black+panther&pg=PA87 |archive-date=2021-02-15 |url-status=live}}</ref> These were operated by party members under the slogan, "Survival pending revolution". In addition to feeding school children, the party started People's Free Food Programs, delivering groceries, and encouraging community members to vote. [[File:Flier for the Black Community Survival Conference.jpg|thumb|Flier picturing and promoting the Black Panther Party Free Food Program, specifically at the Black Community Survival Conference. March 1972.|368x368px]] |
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<ref name=":0" /> Following the creation of the breakfast program came the founding of Liberation Schools.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru" /> The installment of the Intercommunal Youth Institute and the People's Free Medical Research Health Institute followed in 1970.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru" /> The Sickle Cell Anemia Foundation, which provided free sickle cell anemia testing, came in 1971.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru" /> Another Survival Program started by the Black Panther Party was referred to as "medical self-defense" with the creation of healthcare clinics and their own ambulance services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Black Panther Party Stands for Health {{!}} Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health |url=https://www.mailman.columbia.edu/public-health-now/news/black-panther-party-stands-health |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215211416/https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/public-health-now/news/black-panther-party-stands-health |archive-date=2021-02-15 |access-date=2017-09-06 |website=www.mailman.columbia.edu |date=23 February 2016 |language=en}}</ref> Other survival programs included children's development centers, free clothing, free busing to prisons, free housing cooperatives, free ambulances, etc.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Charles Earl |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780933121966/page/30 |title=The Black Panther party (reconsidered) |date=1998 |publisher=Black Classic Press |isbn=0-933121-96-2 |location=Baltimore |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780933121966/page/30 30] |oclc=39228699}}</ref> |
<ref name=":0" /> Following the creation of the breakfast program came the founding of Liberation Schools.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru" /> The installment of the Intercommunal Youth Institute and the People's Free Medical Research Health Institute followed in 1970.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru" /> The Sickle Cell Anemia Foundation, which provided free [[Sickle cell disease|sickle cell anemia]] testing, came in 1971.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru" /> Another Survival Program started by the Black Panther Party was referred to as "medical self-defense" with the creation of healthcare clinics and their own ambulance services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Black Panther Party Stands for Health {{!}} Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health |url=https://www.mailman.columbia.edu/public-health-now/news/black-panther-party-stands-health |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215211416/https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/public-health-now/news/black-panther-party-stands-health |archive-date=2021-02-15 |access-date=2017-09-06 |website=www.mailman.columbia.edu |date=23 February 2016 |language=en}}</ref> Other survival programs included children's development centers, free clothing, free busing to prisons, [[Housing cooperative|free housing cooperatives]], free ambulances, etc.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Charles Earl |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780933121966/page/30 |title=The Black Panther party (reconsidered) |date=1998 |publisher=Black Classic Press |isbn=0-933121-96-2 |location=Baltimore |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780933121966/page/30 30] |oclc=39228699}}</ref> |
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These programs had multiple goals including drawing community members to political rallies, dramatizing social inequalities, providing needed community services, and educating people in the ideas and program of the party.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |last1=Self |first1=Robert |title=American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland |publisher=Princeton University Press, 2003 |pages=232}}</ref> The Survival Programs solidified the Panthers' standing in the larger community. The party's daily presence in the neighborhoods with breakfast, child care, and other programs changed the impression of the Panthers.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> They were seen as community leaders that actively worked to help the people around them. |
These programs had multiple goals including drawing community members to political rallies, dramatizing social inequalities, providing needed community services, and educating people in the ideas and program of the party.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book |last1=Self |first1=Robert |title=American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland |publisher=Princeton University Press, 2003 |pages=232}}</ref> The Survival Programs solidified the Panthers' standing in the larger community. The party's daily presence in the neighborhoods with breakfast, child care, and other programs changed the impression of the Panthers.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> They were seen as community leaders that actively worked to help the people around them. |
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== Locations of the Free Breakfast Program == |
== Locations of the Free Breakfast Program == |
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===Oakland=== |
===Oakland=== |
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The Black Panther Party initially announced their intentions to begin the Free Breakfast for Children Program in September 1968 and the first program was officially launched at St. Augustine's Episcopal Church in Oakland in late January 1969. Parishioner Ruth Beckford-Smith was in charge of this first program.<ref name=":1"/> |
The Black Panther Party initially announced their intentions to begin the Free Breakfast for Children Program in September 1968 and the first program was officially launched at St. Augustine's Episcopal Church in [[Oakland, California|Oakland, CA]] in late January 1969. Parishioner Ruth Beckford-Smith was in charge of this first program.<ref name=":1"/> |
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Beckford-Smith, working with Father Earl A. Neil, constructed a healthy menu that would nourish children and created a kitchen and dining hall that passed health inspections. The program's launch day served 11 children and gained popularity, as by the end of the week 135 children were being served daily at St. Augustine's Episcopal Church. The programs success influenced other chapters of the Black Panther Party, and soon the Free Breakfast Program was mandatory in all chapters nationwide.<ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=Black Panther Party Community Programs (1966-1982)|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/blackpanthers/programs.shtml|access-date=April 29, 2015|publisher=The Black Panther Party Research Project|archive-date=January 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123173420/http://www.stanford.edu/group/blackpanthers/programs.shtml|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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===Chicago=== |
===Chicago=== |
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[[Fred Hampton]], leader of the Chicago local, helped organize a number of community programs. These included five different breakfast programs on the West Side, a free medical center, a door to door program of health services (which offered testing for sickle cell anemia), and blood drives for the [[Cook County Hospital]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Spieler|first1=Geri|title=Taking Aim at the President: The Remarkable Story of the Woman Who Shot at Gerald Ford|date=2009|publisher=St. Martin's|location=New York|isbn=978-0-230-61023-1|page=99|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eg2Ed3efhEMC&pg=PA99|access-date=29 July 2017|archive-date=15 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215211423/https://books.google.com/books?id=eg2Ed3efhEMC&lpg=PA99|url-status=live}}</ref> The Chicago party also reached out to local gangs to clean up their acts, get them away from crime and bring them into the class war. The Party's efforts met with wide success, and Hampton's audiences and organized contingent grew by the day.<ref>{{cite web| last =Baggins| first =Brian| title =History of the Black Panther Party| publisher =Marxists Internet Archive| url =http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-panthers/| access-date =2007-10-16| archive-date =2007-04-08| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070408075155/http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-panthers/| url-status =live}}</ref> |
[[Fred Hampton]], leader of the [[Chicago]] local, helped organize a number of community programs. These included five different breakfast programs on the [[West Side, Chicago|West Side]], a free medical center, a door to door program of health services (which offered testing for sickle cell anemia), and blood drives for the [[Cook County Hospital]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Spieler|first1=Geri|title=Taking Aim at the President: The Remarkable Story of the Woman Who Shot at Gerald Ford|date=2009|publisher=St. Martin's|location=New York|isbn=978-0-230-61023-1|page=99|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eg2Ed3efhEMC&pg=PA99|access-date=29 July 2017|archive-date=15 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215211423/https://books.google.com/books?id=eg2Ed3efhEMC&lpg=PA99|url-status=live}}</ref> The Chicago party also reached out to local gangs to clean up their acts, get them away from crime and bring them into the class war. The Party's efforts met with wide success, and Hampton's audiences and organized contingent grew by the day.<ref>{{cite web| last =Baggins| first =Brian| title =History of the Black Panther Party| publisher =Marxists Internet Archive| url =http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-panthers/| access-date =2007-10-16| archive-date =2007-04-08| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070408075155/http://www.marxists.org/history/usa/workers/black-panthers/| url-status =live}}</ref> |
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The Illinois chapter of the Free Breakfast program served more than 400 children every morning. The success of this program motivated government entities to act as shown in the city of Chicago’s choice to use federal funds to provide hot breakfast to poor children across the city. In addition to that, the BPP free health care clinics across Chicago motivated party members to make appeals to the [[Chicago Board of Health]] advocating for similar clinics in impoverished areas in Chicago. |
The Illinois chapter of the Free Breakfast program served more than 400 children every morning. The success of this program motivated government entities to act as shown in the city of Chicago’s choice to use federal funds to provide hot breakfast to poor children across the city. In addition to that, the BPP free health care clinics across Chicago motivated party members to make appeals to the [[Chicago Board of Health]] advocating for similar clinics in impoverished areas in Chicago. |
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=== Seattle === |
=== Seattle === |
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The Washington chapter of the Black Panther Party experienced support from a Seattle native, Jimi Hendrix. He would often send donations to the Seattle chapter of the BPP's free breakfast program. The |
The Washington chapter of the Black Panther Party experienced support from a Seattle native, [[Jimi Hendrix]]. He would often send donations to the Seattle chapter of the BPP's free breakfast program. The Washington chapter's decision to also serve white and Asian families, led to broad community support, allowing the chapter to expand to five different locations. Beyond providing free meals, the Washington chapter sent out free groceries every Wednesday to families in the Seattle community.<ref>{{Citation |last=Castañeda |first=Oscar Rosales |title=Writing Chicana/o History with the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project |work=Writing History in the Digital Age |pages=209–215 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv65sx57.22 |access-date=2024-04-26 |publisher=University of Michigan Press}}</ref> |
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The Seattle chapter of the Black Panther Party met the needs of numerous ethnic groups because the black population in Seattle was not as high as in other areas. The attention to their specific community needs earned the Seattle chapter a reputation of being influential both in Washington and in the United States in general. The Seattle, Washington chapter's free breakfast program lasted longer than the majority of other programs |
The [[Seattle]] chapter of the Black Panther Party met the needs of numerous ethnic groups because the black population in Seattle was not as high as in other areas. The attention to their specific community needs earned the Seattle chapter a reputation of being influential both in Washington and in the United States in general. The Seattle, Washington chapter's free breakfast program lasted longer than the majority of other programs and continued operations past the chapter's official closing date in 1977.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cole |first=P. |date=2009-03-01 |title=Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, http://depts.washington.edu/civilr/. Created and directed by James N. Gregory, University of Washington, Seattle. Reviewed May-June 2008 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/27694722 |journal=Journal of American History |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=1259–1260 |doi=10.2307/27694722 |issn=0021-8723}}</ref> |
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=== Kansas City === |
=== Kansas City === |
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The Kansas City chapter of the Black Panther Party was led by Peter O’Neal and was composed of working-class, underclass, and middle-class African Americans. Originally the Kansas City chapter of the BPP was known as the |
The [[Kansas City, Kansas|Kansas City]] chapter of the Black Panther Party was led by [[Pete O'Neal|Peter O’Neal]] and was composed of working-class, underclass, and middle-class African Americans. Originally the Kansas City chapter of the BPP was known as the "Black Vigilantes." However, when they gained formal admission to the BPP they changed their name. The main focus of the Kansas City chapter was the discontentment of the African American working class, black youth, and building survival programs.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |title=On the ground: the Black Panther Party in communities across America |date=2010 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-60473-492-8 |editor-last=Jeffries |editor-first=J. L. |location=Jackson, Miss}}</ref> |
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The Kansas City chapter of the Black Panther Party successfully started two sites where free breakfast for school children was offered. In order to keep the program going members of the Kansas City chapter visited local entrepreneurs and requested donations. The support they received allowed the Kansas City chapter to not only feed the black community but also offer political education classes and free health screenings.<ref name=":7" /> |
The Kansas City chapter of the Black Panther Party successfully started two sites where free breakfast for school children was offered. In order to keep the program going, members of the Kansas City chapter visited local entrepreneurs and requested donations. The support they received allowed the Kansas City chapter to not only feed the black community but also offer political education classes and free health screenings.<ref name=":7" /> |
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=== Des Moines === |
=== Des Moines === |
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The Des Moines chapter of the Black Panther Party was successful in organizing a free breakfast program for children. The Des Moines Panthers fed elementary and junior high school children of different races and backgrounds. In order to continue to fund the breakfast program in Des Moines churches of all denominations would donate food and money.<ref name=":7" /> |
The [[Des Moines, Iowa]] chapter of the Black Panther Party was successful in organizing a free breakfast program for children. The Des Moines Panthers fed elementary and junior high school children of different races and backgrounds. In order to continue to fund the breakfast program in Des Moines churches of all denominations would donate food and money.<ref name=":7" /> |
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Along with organizing a free breakfast program for children, the Des Moines chapter also organized health programs for adults. Under the leadership of Mary Rhem, the Des Moines chapter was successful in not only making their survival programs successful but also making their work known to the public. Thanks to multiple members of the Des Moines chapter making connections with community groups their work and goals were spread to the public. The Des Moines Register |
Along with organizing a free breakfast program for children, the Des Moines chapter also organized health programs for adults. Under the leadership of Mary Rhem, the Des Moines chapter was successful in not only making their survival programs successful but also making their work known to the public. Thanks to multiple members of the Des Moines chapter making connections with community groups their work and goals were spread to the public. The local paper, ''The Des Moines Register,'' covered the work of the breakfast program in Des Moines.<ref name=":7" /> |
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=== Houston === |
=== Houston === |
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The chapter of the Black Panther Party in Houston, Texas took three waves to establish between 1968 and 1974 until their chapter was recognized as an official BPP chapter.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |title=On the ground: the Black Panther Party in communities across America |date=2010 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-60473-492-8 |editor-last=Jeffries |editor-first=J. L. |location=Jackson, Miss}}</ref> The implementation of the Houston chapter didn’t gain importance in their community until Carl Hampton established the People's Party II (PP II) in 1970; his murder would play a pivotal role in their chapter gaining membership.<ref name=":12" /> By October 1971, PP II members received authorization to establish the Houston BPP branch. This final formation lasted approximately three years before it was forced to dissolve in August 1974, following orders from the national BPP leadership to relocate to Oakland.<ref name=":12" /> |
The chapter of the Black Panther Party in [[Houston|Houston, Texas]] took three waves to establish between 1968 and 1974, until their chapter was recognized as an official BPP chapter.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |title=On the ground: the Black Panther Party in communities across America |date=2010 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-60473-492-8 |editor-last=Jeffries |editor-first=J. L. |location=Jackson, Miss}}</ref> The implementation of the Houston chapter didn’t gain importance in their community until [[Carl Hampton]] established the People's Party II (PP II) in 1970; his murder would play a pivotal role in their chapter gaining membership.<ref name=":12" /> By October 1971, PP II members received authorization to establish the Houston BPP branch. This final formation lasted approximately three years before it was forced to dissolve in August 1974, following orders from the national BPP leadership to relocate to Oakland.<ref name=":12" /> |
||
During the final wave of the Houston chapter’s implementation, they were able to fully perform the roles and responsibilities similar to other more prominent chapters.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |title=On the ground: the Black Panther Party in communities across America |date=2010 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-60473-492-8 |editor-last=Jeffries |editor-first=J. L. |location=Jackson, Miss}}</ref> While the free pest control project was a program that remained successful through their recognition phase, they were finally able to include the large programs that were run in the other Party’s chapters—free food giveaways, and sickle cell anemia and other |
During the final wave of the Houston chapter’s implementation, they were able to fully perform the roles and responsibilities similar to other more prominent chapters.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |title=On the ground: the Black Panther Party in communities across America |date=2010 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-1-60473-492-8 |editor-last=Jeffries |editor-first=J. L. |location=Jackson, Miss}}</ref> While the free pest control project was a program that remained successful through their recognition phase, they were finally able to include the large programs that were run in the other Party’s chapters—free food giveaways, and sickle cell anemia and other preventive testing.<ref name=":13" /> One of their most successful programs—after many failed attempts at implementation—was the Free Breakfast for Children Program implemented in March 1973.<ref name=":13" /> While other chapters had support from their local churches for the Free Breakfast program, the Houston chapter lacked this support from their local churches. Since the members of the Houston chapter were determined to provide this program for their community, their first program was held in the Dew Drop Inn, a neighborhood beer joint on Dowling Street.<ref name=":13" /> |
||
==Demise== |
==Demise== |
||
Despite its successes, federal authorities attempted to discredit and derail the Free Breakfast Program. Among other actions, authorities |
Despite its successes, federal authorities, as part of the [[COINTELPRO]] agenda, attempted to discredit and derail the Free Breakfast Program. Among other actions, authorities spread rumors of poisoned food and raided breakfast program locations while children were eating.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hassberg |first=Analena Hope |title=Nurturing the Revolution |date=2020-10-27 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5749/j.ctv182jtk0.6 |work=Black Food Matters |pages=82–106 |access-date=2021-04-01 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |doi=10.5749/j.ctv182jtk0.6 |isbn=978-1-4529-6193-4 |s2cid=228942758}}</ref> The program gained FBI director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s attention because of its success in gaining the support of many black children and liberal whites.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pien |first=Diane |date=2010-02-11 |title=Black Panther Party's Free Breakfast Program (1969-1980) • |url=https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/black-panther-partys-free-breakfast-program-1969-1980/ |access-date=2021-09-07 |language=en-US}}</ref> The FBI would view the program as threat because of its appearance "as a front for indoctrinating children with [[Propaganda|Panther propaganda]]."<ref name=":1" /> Hoover wrote: "The [Program] represents the best and most influential activity going for the BPP and, as such, is potentially the greatest threat to efforts by authorities to neutralize the BPP and destroy what it stands for".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Pope |first1=Ricky J. |last2=Flanigan |first2=Shawn T. |date=2013-11-12 |title=Revolution for Breakfast: Intersections of Activism, Service, and Violence in the Black Panther Party's Community Service Programs |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-013-0197-8 |journal=Social Justice Research |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=445–470 |doi=10.1007/s11211-013-0197-8 |issn=0885-7466 |s2cid=143530867}}</ref> As a result, many agencies, such as the police and FBI, were documented to be a force in harassing and discrediting the program, the people it benefited, and the Black Panther Party organization.<ref name=":3" /> [[Police raid|Police raids]] were documented at various program sites as an effort to end the Free Breakfast for Children program. |
||
== Legacy == |
== Legacy == |
||
The success of the Black Panther Party's Free Breakfast for Children program helped reduce hunger and food insecurity, while pressuring state and federal governments to expand their own services |
The success of the Black Panther Party's Free Breakfast for Children program helped reduce [[Hunger in the United States|hunger and food insecurity]] locally, while pressuring state and federal governments to expand their own services. The program showed the government's failure in the [[War on poverty|War on Poverty]] and the ongoing impact of childhood hunger.<ref name=":0" /> |
||
⚫ | However, it would be a decade or more before such free breakfast programs, following the inspiration of the widespread success and popular support gained by the BPP's programs, would become almost universally available to poor children through the US government.<ref name="American Babylon: Race and the Stru" /> In California, the party pushed then-Governor [[Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan's]] administration to create a statewide free breakfast program. While the federally funded [[School Breakfast Program]] for underprivileged children was first piloted in 1966 by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|US Department of Agriculture]], [[United States Congress|Congress]] only permanently authorized it in 1975.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heynen |first=Nik |date=2009-04-22 |title=Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival: The Black Panther Party's Radical Antihunger Politics of Social Reproduction and Scale |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00045600802683767 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=406–422 |doi=10.1080/00045600802683767 |issn=0004-5608 |s2cid=143823808}}</ref> However, the California campaign for a free breakfast program had the underlining objective of this state-wide implementation was to seize the political power the Black Panther Party had gained through their survival programs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heynen |first=Nik |date=2009-04-22 |title=Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival: The Black Panther Party's Radical Antihunger Politics of Social Reproduction and Scale |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00045600802683767 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |language=en |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=406–422 |doi=10.1080/00045600802683767 |issn=0004-5608}}</ref> Additionally, the implementation of this government-funded free breakfast program would cause controversy due to budget cuts made during [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan’s presidency]] which would lead to [[Poverty in the United States|widespread poverty across the United States.]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heynen |first=Nik |date=2009-04-22 |title=Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival: The Black Panther Party's Radical Antihunger Politics of Social Reproduction and Scale |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00045600802683767 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |language=en |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=406–422 |doi=10.1080/00045600802683767 |issn=0004-5608}}</ref> |
||
Within six months, the Black Panther Party had Free Breakfast Programs distributed in 23 cities across the United States and had served over 20,000 kids between 1969 and 1970 alone. The Panthers would also often educate youth and parents on black history, black pride, and community uplift during the free meals.<ref name=":7" /> |
|||
The BPP had over 5,000 members spread out in 45 chapters across the United States which inspired federally funded programs in schools to provide free meals. Established in 1966, the US Department of Agriculture would create school breakfast programs for underprivileged children. These programs are inherently rooted in the Black Panther Party’s belief that children cannot learn without adequate nutrition. |
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⚫ | However, it would be a decade or more before free |
||
==See also== |
==See also== |
||
* [[Black Panther Party]] |
|||
* ''[[The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution]]'' |
* ''[[The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution]]'' |
||
* [[COINTELPRO]] |
* [[COINTELPRO]] |
||
* [[List of breakfast topics]] |
|||
* [[Child Nutrition Act]] |
* [[Child Nutrition Act]] |
||
* [[National School Lunch Act]] |
|||
* [[School Breakfast Program]] |
|||
* [[Food Justice Movement]] |
* [[Food Justice Movement]] |
||
* [[Social reproduction]] |
|||
==Notes== |
==Notes== |
Revision as of 23:21, 3 June 2024
Free Breakfast for School Children Program | |
---|---|
Products | Breakfast |
Owner | Black Panther Party |
Country | United States |
Key people | Huey P. Newton, Fred Hampton |
Established | 1969 |
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/NMAAHC-2012_46_20_1001.jpg/220px-NMAAHC-2012_46_20_1001.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Black_Panther_Party_Free_Breakfast.jpg/260px-Black_Panther_Party_Free_Breakfast.jpg)
The Free Breakfast for School Children Program, or the People’s Free Food Program, was a community service program run by the Black Panther Party that focused on providing free breakfast for children before school. The program began in January 1969 at Father Earl A. Neil's St. Augustine's Episcopal Church, located in West Oakland, California[1] and spread throughout the nation. This program was an early manifestation of the social mission envisioned by Black Panther Party founders Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, along with their founding of the Oakland Community School, which provided high-level education to 150 children from impoverished urban neighborhoods. The breakfasts formed the core of what became known as the party's Survival Programs.[2] Inspired by contemporary research about the essential role of breakfast for optimal schooling and the belief that alleviating hunger and poverty was necessary for Black liberation, the Panthers cooked and served food to the poor inner city youth of the area. The service created community centers in various cities for children and parents to simultaneously eat and learn more about black liberation and the Black Panther Party's efforts.
History
The program was initiated in January 1969 at St. Augustine's Episcopal Church in West Oakland, California. Two months later, in March 1969, the Black Panther Party opened its second Free Breakfast Program for Children at the Sacred Heart Church in San Francisco, California.[3] The program became so popular that by the end of the year, the Panthers set up kitchens in cities across the US, claiming to have fed 20,000 children in 1969.[4] Between 1969 and 1971, at least 36 Free Breakfast for Kids programs were running nationwide.[1]
The Free Breakfast Program quickly became the central organizing activity of the Black Panther Party. The reach and success of the program highlighted the inadequacies of the federal government's then-flagging and under-resourced lunch programs in public schools across the country. The program allowed the children of West Oakland's poor neighborhoods to eat a healthy nourishing meal in a safe, supportive environment before school, optimizing their ability to learn.[2] The party used the program to educate children and their families about anti-capitalism, Black pride, and developing revolutionary consciousness.[5] Many of these programs were held in predominantly Black neighborhoods but also served children of other ethnicities. The program was mainly run by volunteers—both party members and non-affiliated community members, most of them women. Those working closely in the program made sure that the free breakfasts were a concrete assistance to the city's poor communities. They also shaped the program to be a powerful symbol of racial injustice and ghetto marginalization in America by teaching liberation lessons while children ate their meal.[2] Volunteers would start setting up and preparing food around 6 am, and served the meal from 7-8:30. Most programs took place in churches, schools, or community centers. A typical breakfast often included some combination of bacon, eggs, grits, hotcakes, toast, sausage, and a glass of juice or milk.[6] Various chapters would also provide transportation for children, from home to the chapter's Free Breakfast site, then to school.
Black Panther Party's Survival Programs
The Free Breakfast for Children Program was one among more than 60 community social programs created by the Black Panther Party.[7] They were renamed Survival Programs in 1971.[8] These were operated by party members under the slogan, "Survival pending revolution". In addition to feeding school children, the party started People's Free Food Programs, delivering groceries, and encouraging community members to vote.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flier_for_the_Black_Community_Survival_Conference.jpg/368px-Flier_for_the_Black_Community_Survival_Conference.jpg)
[6] Following the creation of the breakfast program came the founding of Liberation Schools.[2] The installment of the Intercommunal Youth Institute and the People's Free Medical Research Health Institute followed in 1970.[2] The Sickle Cell Anemia Foundation, which provided free sickle cell anemia testing, came in 1971.[2] Another Survival Program started by the Black Panther Party was referred to as "medical self-defense" with the creation of healthcare clinics and their own ambulance services.[9] Other survival programs included children's development centers, free clothing, free busing to prisons, free housing cooperatives, free ambulances, etc.[10]
These programs had multiple goals including drawing community members to political rallies, dramatizing social inequalities, providing needed community services, and educating people in the ideas and program of the party.[11] The Survival Programs solidified the Panthers' standing in the larger community. The party's daily presence in the neighborhoods with breakfast, child care, and other programs changed the impression of the Panthers.[11] They were seen as community leaders that actively worked to help the people around them.
Women's Roles and Contributions to the Free Breakfast Program
The Black Panther Party began as a predominantly male organization but later grew to recruit large numbers of women. With the rise in women's membership, the Party recruited primarily women to staff the Free Breakfast for Children program. Women’s roles and responsibilities within the Black Panther party were often stereotyped and marginalized and this often reinforced traditional gender norms, which gained pushback from the Party's women in the effort to achieve gender equality. The Party's service programs were deeply gendered and often relied on women to fill service roles. Despite women's crucial roles in organizing, logistics, and community outreach, they were frequently demoted to support roles, such as cooking, childcare, and administrative tasks.[12] This limited portrayal undermined their leadership potential and downplayed their significant contributions to the movement. With similar oppressive roles in the Free Breakfast for Children programs, women's duties and responsibilities consisted of maternal roles in the program’s kitchens and serving roles, further highlighting the gender struggles within the Black Panther Party.[1]
The involvement of the women within their BPP chapters was greater than what they have been recognized for within their communities.[13] A notable contribution to the party’s mission towards providing free services such as the Free Breakfast for Children program was made by Frankye Adams-Johnson, co-founder of the White Plains Black Panther Party chapter.[13] Similar to the responsibilities and jobs designated to the men, many of these duties in the White Plains chapter were fulfilled by women in the party.[13] Specifically looking at their Free Breakfast for Children program, Johnson’s chapter organized and coordinated the logistics of this program, securing food donations and managing operations. The women were also responsible for cooking nutritious meals and ensuring they met dietary needs. The existence of Black Panther Party chapters founded and run by women showed equal commitment to what the Party stood for. Moreover, women-based Free Breakfast programs within chapters founded by women helped to lessen the stereotypes often associated with women's roles in the Party.
Locations of the Free Breakfast Program
Oakland
The Black Panther Party initially announced their intentions to begin the Free Breakfast for Children Program in September 1968 and the first program was officially launched at St. Augustine's Episcopal Church in Oakland, CA in late January 1969. Parishioner Ruth Beckford-Smith was in charge of this first program.[1]
Beckford-Smith, working with Father Earl A. Neil, constructed a healthy menu that would nourish children and created a kitchen and dining hall that passed health inspections. The program's launch day served 11 children and gained popularity, as by the end of the week 135 children were being served daily at St. Augustine's Episcopal Church. The programs success influenced other chapters of the Black Panther Party, and soon the Free Breakfast Program was mandatory in all chapters nationwide.[7]
Chicago
Fred Hampton, leader of the Chicago local, helped organize a number of community programs. These included five different breakfast programs on the West Side, a free medical center, a door to door program of health services (which offered testing for sickle cell anemia), and blood drives for the Cook County Hospital.[14] The Chicago party also reached out to local gangs to clean up their acts, get them away from crime and bring them into the class war. The Party's efforts met with wide success, and Hampton's audiences and organized contingent grew by the day.[15]
The Illinois chapter of the Free Breakfast program served more than 400 children every morning. The success of this program motivated government entities to act as shown in the city of Chicago’s choice to use federal funds to provide hot breakfast to poor children across the city. In addition to that, the BPP free health care clinics across Chicago motivated party members to make appeals to the Chicago Board of Health advocating for similar clinics in impoverished areas in Chicago.
Seattle
The Washington chapter of the Black Panther Party experienced support from a Seattle native, Jimi Hendrix. He would often send donations to the Seattle chapter of the BPP's free breakfast program. The Washington chapter's decision to also serve white and Asian families, led to broad community support, allowing the chapter to expand to five different locations. Beyond providing free meals, the Washington chapter sent out free groceries every Wednesday to families in the Seattle community.[16]
The Seattle chapter of the Black Panther Party met the needs of numerous ethnic groups because the black population in Seattle was not as high as in other areas. The attention to their specific community needs earned the Seattle chapter a reputation of being influential both in Washington and in the United States in general. The Seattle, Washington chapter's free breakfast program lasted longer than the majority of other programs and continued operations past the chapter's official closing date in 1977.[17]
Kansas City
The Kansas City chapter of the Black Panther Party was led by Peter O’Neal and was composed of working-class, underclass, and middle-class African Americans. Originally the Kansas City chapter of the BPP was known as the "Black Vigilantes." However, when they gained formal admission to the BPP they changed their name. The main focus of the Kansas City chapter was the discontentment of the African American working class, black youth, and building survival programs.[18]
The Kansas City chapter of the Black Panther Party successfully started two sites where free breakfast for school children was offered. In order to keep the program going, members of the Kansas City chapter visited local entrepreneurs and requested donations. The support they received allowed the Kansas City chapter to not only feed the black community but also offer political education classes and free health screenings.[18]
Des Moines
The Des Moines, Iowa chapter of the Black Panther Party was successful in organizing a free breakfast program for children. The Des Moines Panthers fed elementary and junior high school children of different races and backgrounds. In order to continue to fund the breakfast program in Des Moines churches of all denominations would donate food and money.[18]
Along with organizing a free breakfast program for children, the Des Moines chapter also organized health programs for adults. Under the leadership of Mary Rhem, the Des Moines chapter was successful in not only making their survival programs successful but also making their work known to the public. Thanks to multiple members of the Des Moines chapter making connections with community groups their work and goals were spread to the public. The local paper, The Des Moines Register, covered the work of the breakfast program in Des Moines.[18]
Houston
The chapter of the Black Panther Party in Houston, Texas took three waves to establish between 1968 and 1974, until their chapter was recognized as an official BPP chapter.[19] The implementation of the Houston chapter didn’t gain importance in their community until Carl Hampton established the People's Party II (PP II) in 1970; his murder would play a pivotal role in their chapter gaining membership.[19] By October 1971, PP II members received authorization to establish the Houston BPP branch. This final formation lasted approximately three years before it was forced to dissolve in August 1974, following orders from the national BPP leadership to relocate to Oakland.[19]
During the final wave of the Houston chapter’s implementation, they were able to fully perform the roles and responsibilities similar to other more prominent chapters.[20] While the free pest control project was a program that remained successful through their recognition phase, they were finally able to include the large programs that were run in the other Party’s chapters—free food giveaways, and sickle cell anemia and other preventive testing.[20] One of their most successful programs—after many failed attempts at implementation—was the Free Breakfast for Children Program implemented in March 1973.[20] While other chapters had support from their local churches for the Free Breakfast program, the Houston chapter lacked this support from their local churches. Since the members of the Houston chapter were determined to provide this program for their community, their first program was held in the Dew Drop Inn, a neighborhood beer joint on Dowling Street.[20]
Demise
Despite its successes, federal authorities, as part of the COINTELPRO agenda, attempted to discredit and derail the Free Breakfast Program. Among other actions, authorities spread rumors of poisoned food and raided breakfast program locations while children were eating.[21] The program gained FBI director J. Edgar Hoover's attention because of its success in gaining the support of many black children and liberal whites.[22] The FBI would view the program as threat because of its appearance "as a front for indoctrinating children with Panther propaganda."[1] Hoover wrote: "The [Program] represents the best and most influential activity going for the BPP and, as such, is potentially the greatest threat to efforts by authorities to neutralize the BPP and destroy what it stands for".[23] As a result, many agencies, such as the police and FBI, were documented to be a force in harassing and discrediting the program, the people it benefited, and the Black Panther Party organization.[23] Police raids were documented at various program sites as an effort to end the Free Breakfast for Children program.
Legacy
The success of the Black Panther Party's Free Breakfast for Children program helped reduce hunger and food insecurity locally, while pressuring state and federal governments to expand their own services. The program showed the government's failure in the War on Poverty and the ongoing impact of childhood hunger.[6]
However, it would be a decade or more before such free breakfast programs, following the inspiration of the widespread success and popular support gained by the BPP's programs, would become almost universally available to poor children through the US government.[2] In California, the party pushed then-Governor Ronald Reagan's administration to create a statewide free breakfast program. While the federally funded School Breakfast Program for underprivileged children was first piloted in 1966 by the US Department of Agriculture, Congress only permanently authorized it in 1975.[24] However, the California campaign for a free breakfast program had the underlining objective of this state-wide implementation was to seize the political power the Black Panther Party had gained through their survival programs.[25] Additionally, the implementation of this government-funded free breakfast program would cause controversy due to budget cuts made during Reagan’s presidency which would lead to widespread poverty across the United States.[26]
See also
- Black Panther Party
- The Black Panthers: Vanguard of the Revolution
- COINTELPRO
- Child Nutrition Act
- National School Lunch Act
- School Breakfast Program
- Food Justice Movement
- Social reproduction
Notes
- ^ a b c d e Bloom, Joshua (25 October 2016). Black against empire : the history and politics of the Black Panther Party. ISBN 978-0-520-29328-1. OCLC 966308767.
- ^ a b c d e f g Self, Robert. American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland. Princeton University Press, 2003. p. 231.
- ^ "The Moral Bases of the Black Panther Party's Breakfast Program, Johnson's Head Start and Blair's Sure Start : A Critical Comparison", Remoralizing Britain? : Political, Ethical and Theological Perspectives on New Labour, Continuum, 2009, doi:10.5040/9781472549303.ch-010, ISBN 978-0-8264-4414-1, retrieved 2021-11-19
- ^ Black Panther Party, Sacramento (October 24, 1969). "Sacramento Breakfast" (PDF). The Black Panther. p. 7. Retrieved January 25, 2024.
- ^ Hassberg, Analena Hope (2020-10-27), "Nurturing the Revolution", Black Food Matters, University of Minnesota Press, pp. 82–106, doi:10.5749/j.ctv182jtk0.6, ISBN 978-1-4529-6193-4, S2CID 228942758, retrieved 2021-04-06
- ^ a b c Potorti, Mary (March 2017). ""Feeding the Revolution": the Black Panther Party, Hunger, and Community Survival". Journal of African American Studies. 21 (1): 85–110. doi:10.1007/s12111-017-9345-9. ISSN 1559-1646. S2CID 151621603.
- ^ a b "Black Panther Party Community Programs (1966-1982)". The Black Panther Party Research Project. Archived from the original on January 23, 2013. Retrieved April 29, 2015.
- ^ Churchill, Ward (2014). "'To Disrupt, Discredit and Destroy' The FBI's Secret War against the Black Panther Party". In Cleaver, Kathleen; Katsiaficas, George (eds.). Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party: A New Look at the Black Panthers and Their Legacy. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-135-29832-6. Archived from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2020-11-11.
- ^ "The Black Panther Party Stands for Health | Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health". www.mailman.columbia.edu. 23 February 2016. Archived from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2017-09-06.
- ^ Jones, Charles Earl (1998). The Black Panther party (reconsidered). Baltimore: Black Classic Press. pp. 30. ISBN 0-933121-96-2. OCLC 39228699.
- ^ a b Self, Robert. American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland. Princeton University Press, 2003. p. 232.
- ^ Cope, Suzanne (2021-11-09). Power Hungry: Women of the Black Panther Party and Freedom Summer and Their Fight to Feed a Movement. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1-64160-455-0.
- ^ a b c Cope, Suzanne (2021-11-09). Power Hungry: Women of the Black Panther Party and Freedom Summer and Their Fight to Feed a Movement. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 978-1-64160-455-0.
- ^ Spieler, Geri (2009). Taking Aim at the President: The Remarkable Story of the Woman Who Shot at Gerald Ford. New York: St. Martin's. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-230-61023-1. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2017.
- ^ Baggins, Brian. "History of the Black Panther Party". Marxists Internet Archive. Archived from the original on 2007-04-08. Retrieved 2007-10-16.
- ^ Castañeda, Oscar Rosales, "Writing Chicana/o History with the Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project", Writing History in the Digital Age, University of Michigan Press, pp. 209–215, retrieved 2024-04-26
- ^ Cole, P. (2009-03-01). "Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project, http://depts.washington.edu/civilr/. Created and directed by James N. Gregory, University of Washington, Seattle. Reviewed May-June 2008". Journal of American History. 95 (4): 1259–1260. doi:10.2307/27694722. ISSN 0021-8723.
{{cite journal}}
: External link in
(help)|title=
- ^ a b c d Jeffries, J. L., ed. (2010). On the ground: the Black Panther Party in communities across America. Jackson, Miss: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-492-8.
- ^ a b c Jeffries, J. L., ed. (2010). On the ground: the Black Panther Party in communities across America. Jackson, Miss: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-492-8.
- ^ a b c d Jeffries, J. L., ed. (2010). On the ground: the Black Panther Party in communities across America. Jackson, Miss: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-492-8.
- ^ Hassberg, Analena Hope (2020-10-27), "Nurturing the Revolution", Black Food Matters, University of Minnesota Press, pp. 82–106, doi:10.5749/j.ctv182jtk0.6, ISBN 978-1-4529-6193-4, S2CID 228942758, retrieved 2021-04-01
- ^ Pien, Diane (2010-02-11). "Black Panther Party's Free Breakfast Program (1969-1980) •". Retrieved 2021-09-07.
- ^ a b Pope, Ricky J.; Flanigan, Shawn T. (2013-11-12). "Revolution for Breakfast: Intersections of Activism, Service, and Violence in the Black Panther Party's Community Service Programs". Social Justice Research. 26 (4): 445–470. doi:10.1007/s11211-013-0197-8. ISSN 0885-7466. S2CID 143530867.
- ^ Heynen, Nik (2009-04-22). "Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival: The Black Panther Party's Radical Antihunger Politics of Social Reproduction and Scale". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 99 (2): 406–422. doi:10.1080/00045600802683767. ISSN 0004-5608. S2CID 143823808.
- ^ Heynen, Nik (2009-04-22). "Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival: The Black Panther Party's Radical Antihunger Politics of Social Reproduction and Scale". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 99 (2): 406–422. doi:10.1080/00045600802683767. ISSN 0004-5608.
- ^ Heynen, Nik (2009-04-22). "Bending the Bars of Empire from Every Ghetto for Survival: The Black Panther Party's Radical Antihunger Politics of Social Reproduction and Scale". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 99 (2): 406–422. doi:10.1080/00045600802683767. ISSN 0004-5608.
References
- Katsiaficas, George N.; Kathleen Cleaver (March 2001). Liberation, Imagination and the Black Panther Party: A New Look at Their Legacy. Routledge. pp. 87–89. ISBN 0-415-92783-8.
- Abu-Jamal, Mumia (May 2004). We Want Freedom: A Life in the Black Panther Party. South End Press. pp. 69–70. ISBN 0-89608-718-2.Pope, Ricky J., and
- Shawn T. Flanigan. "Revolution for Breakfast: Intersections of Activism, Service, and Violence in the Black Panther Party's Community Service Programs." Social Justice Research, vol. 26, no. 4, Springer US, 2013, pp. 445–70, /s11211-013-0197-8.
- Hilliard, David. The Black Panther Party Service to the People Programs. University of New Mexico Press, 2008.
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