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==External links==
==External links==
*[http://www.edistalearning.com EdistaLearning]
* [http://tsengcollege.csun.edu/idad/home.htm CSUN Instructional Design and Adult Development Certificate Program]
* [http://tsengcollege.csun.edu/idad/home.htm CSUN Instructional Design and Adult Development Certificate Program]
* [http://www.astd.org American Society for Training & Development (ASTD)]
* [http://www.astd.org American Society for Training & Development (ASTD)]

Revision as of 10:33, 6 September 2007

Instructional design is the practice of arranging media (communication technology)and content to help learners and teachers transfer knowledge most effectively. The process consists broadly of determining the current state of learner understanding, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some media-based "intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed.

As a field, Instructional Design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioural psychology. However, because it is not a regulated field, and therefore not well understood, the term 'instructional design' has been co-opted by or confused with a variety of other ideologically-based and / or professional fields. Instructional Design, for example, is not Graphic Design although graphic design (from a cognitive perspective) could play an important role in Instructional Design. Preparing instructional text by E. Misanchuk, and publications by James Hartley are useful to informing the distinction between Instructional Design and Graphic Design.

History

Much of the foundation of the field of instructional design was laid in World War II, when the U.S. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform complex technical tasks, from field-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a bomber.

Drawing on the research and theories of B.F. Skinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. Tasks were broken down into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal. Training was designed to reward correct performance and remediate incorrect performance. Mastery was assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback. After the war, the success of the wartime training model was replicated in business and industrial training, and to a lesser extent in the primary and secondary classroom. [1]

In 1955 Benjamin Bloom published an influential taxonomy of what he termed the three domains of learning: Cognitive (what we know or think), Psychomotor (what we do, physically) and Affective (what we feel, or what attitudes we have). These taxonomies still influence the design of instruction. [2]

During the later half of the 20th century, learning theories began to be influenced by the growth of digital computers.

Many Instructional design theorists began to adopt an "information-processing" approach to the design of instruction. David Merrill for instance developed Component Display Theory (CDT). This influential theory concentrated on the means of presenting instructional materials (presentation techniques)[3]. Later in the 1980s and throughout the 1990s cognitive load theory began to find empirical support for a variety of presentation techniques.[4]

Cognitive load theory and the design of instruction

Cognitive load theory developed out of several empirical studies of learners as they interacted with instructional materials [5]. It is emblematic of the historical roots of cognitive psychology in Instructional Design. Sweller and his associates began to measure the effects of working memory load and found that the format of instructional materials has a direct effect on the performance of the learners using those materials [6] [7] [8]

While the media debates of the 1990s focused on the influences of media on learning, cognitive load effects were being documented in several journals. These effects it seems were based on the design of instructional materials, as opposed to the media being used. Finally Mayer [9] asked the Instructional Design community to reassess this media debate, to refocus their attention on what was most important – learning.

By the late 1990s, John Sweller and his associates had discovered several learning effects related to cognitive load and the design of instructional materials (e.g. the Split attention effect, redundancy effect, and the worked example effect). Later, other researchers like Richard Mayer began to attribute other learning effects to cognitive load [9]. Mayer and his associates soon developed a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning [10] [11] [12]

In the past decade, Cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted [13] and begun to revolutionize how Instructional Designers view instruction. Recently, Human performance experts have even taken notice of cognitive load and begun to promote this theory base as the Science of Instruction, with Instructional Designers as the practitioners of this field [14]. Finally Clark, Nguyen and Sweller [15] published an important text describing how Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence based guidelines of Cognitive load theory.

Learning Design

The IMS Learning Design [16]specification supports the use of a wide range of pedagogies in online learning. Rather than attempting to capture the specifics of many pedagogies, it does this by providing a generic and flexible language. This language is designed to enable many different pedagogies to be expressed. The approach has the advantage over alternatives in that only one set of learning design and runtime tools then need to be implemented in order to support the desired wide range of pedagogies. The language was originally developed at the Open University of the Netherlands (OUNL), after extensive examination and comparison of a wide range of pedagogical approaches and their associated learning activities, and several iterations of the developing language to obtain a good balance between generality and pedagogic expressiveness.

Instructional design models

Perhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE Model. This acronym stands for the 5 phases contained in the model:

  • Analyze - analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.
  • Design - develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach
  • Develop - create instructional or training materials
  • Implement - deliver or distribute the instructional materials
  • Evaluate - make sure the materials achieved the desired goals

Most of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE model. A sometimes utilized adaptation to this model is in a practice known as rapid prototyping. Proponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documents saves time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. This approach is not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains including software design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design, user experience design, etc.[17] [18]

Instructional theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.

Influential researchers and theorists

  • Lev Vygotsky - Learning as a social activity - 1930s
  • B.F. Skinner - Behaviorism - 1940s
  • Benjamin Bloom - Taxonomies of the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains - 1955
  • R.F. Mager - ABCD model for instructional objectives - 1962
  • Jean Piaget - Cognitive development - 1960s
  • Seymour Papert - LOGO - 1970s
  • Robert M. Gagné - Nine Events of Instruction - 1970s
  • Jerome Bruner - Constructivism
  • Dick, W. & Carey, L. "The Systematic Design of Instruction" - 1978
  • Michael Simonson - Instructional Systems and Design via Distance Education - 1980s
  • M. David Merrill and Charles Reigeluth - Elaboration Theory / Component Display Theory / PEAnets - 1980s
  • Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James Russell - Instructional Media and the new technologies of instruction 3rd ed. - Educational Technology - 1989
  • Roger Schank - Constructivist simulations - 1990s
  • David Jonassen - Cognitivist problem-solving strategies - 1990s
  • Ruth Clark - Theories on instructional design and technical training - 1990s
  • Charles Graham and Curtis Bonk - Blended learning - 2000s

See also

Since instructional design deals with creating useful instruction and instructional materials, there are many other areas that are related to the field of instructional design.

References

  1. ^ http://www.bfskinner.org/Documents.asp
  2. ^ http://www.officeport.com/edu/blooms.htm
  3. ^ http://tip.psychology.org/merrill.html
  4. ^ http://www.leaonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1?cookieSet=1&journalCode=ep
  5. ^ Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". Cognitive Science. 12 (1): 257–285.
  6. ^ Chandler, P. & Sweller, J.. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction". Cognition and Instruction. 8 (4): 293–332.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). "The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction. 2 (1): 59–89.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). "Effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical problem-solving transfer". Journal of Educational Psychology. 79 (4): 347–362.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ a b Mayer, R.E. (1997). "Multimedia Learning: Are We Asking the Right Questions?". Educational Psychologist. 32 (41): 1–19.
  10. ^ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78239-2.
  11. ^ Mayer, R.E., Bove,W. Bryman, A. Mars,R. & Tapangco, L. (1996). "When Less Is More: Meaningful Learning From Visual and Verbal Summaries of Science Textbook Lessons". Journal of Educational Psychology. 88 (1): 64–73.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Mayer, R.E., Steinhoff, K., Bower, G. and Mars, R. (1995). "A generative theory of textbook design: Using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text". Educational Technology Research and Development. 43 (1): 31–41.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Paas, F., Renkl, A. & Sweller, J. (2004). "Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture". Instructional Science. 32: 1–8.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Clark, R.C., Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-6051-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Clark, R. C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. ISBN 0-7879-7728-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ IMS Learning Design webpage
  17. ^ Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology.
  18. ^ Stolovitch, H.D, & Keeps, E. (1999). Handbook of human performance technology.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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