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Duke University Press, 2002. ISBN 0822329611</ref> defined the extent of the "''Mongolian''" race, "''by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches.''"<!--p.146--><ref name=Gob>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JeM_1BCeffAC|year=1915|publisher=Putnam|last=Gobineau|first= Arthur|title=The Inequality of Human Races|accessdate=2007-10-18}}</ref> In the 20th century, [[Carleton S. Coon]] used the term and included Pacific Islanders.<ref>[http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant275/presentations/POST_WWII.PDF Jim Bindon, University of Alabama, Post WW2 notions about Human Variation]</ref> In 1983, Futuyma claimed that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by "''many anthropologists''" who consider them "''distinct races''".<ref name=Futuyma>Futuyma, Douglas A. <u>Evolutionary Biology.</u> Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1983. p. 520</ref> For example, in 1984, Roger J. Lederer Professor of Biological Sciences<ref>California State University, Chico. "University Catalog." September 28, 2007. 2003.[http://www.csuchico.edu/catalog/cat03/programs/biol/faculty.html]</ref> separately listed the "''Mongoloid''" race from Pacific islanders and American Indians when he enumerated the "''geographical varients of the same species known as races...we recognize several races Eskimos, American Indians, Mongoloid... Polynesian''"<ref>Lederer Roger J. <u>Ecology and Field Biology.</u> Cummings Publishing Company: California, 1984. ISBN 0-8053-5718-1 p.129</ref>. Another term was introduced by noted ethnologist Dr.MWSpanakos of New York City, the usage of "Mongolasian", and has gain great popularity.
Duke University Press, 2002. ISBN 0822329611</ref> defined the extent of the "''Mongolian''" race, "''by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches.''"<!--p.146--><ref name=Gob>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JeM_1BCeffAC|year=1915|publisher=Putnam|last=Gobineau|first= Arthur|title=The Inequality of Human Races|accessdate=2007-10-18}}</ref> In the 20th century, [[Carleton S. Coon]] used the term and included Pacific Islanders.<ref>[http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant275/presentations/POST_WWII.PDF Jim Bindon, University of Alabama, Post WW2 notions about Human Variation]</ref> In 1983, Futuyma claimed that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by "''many anthropologists''" who consider them "''distinct races''".<ref name=Futuyma>Futuyma, Douglas A. <u>Evolutionary Biology.</u> Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1983. p. 520</ref> For example, in 1984, Roger J. Lederer Professor of Biological Sciences<ref>California State University, Chico. "University Catalog." September 28, 2007. 2003.[http://www.csuchico.edu/catalog/cat03/programs/biol/faculty.html]</ref> separately listed the "''Mongoloid''" race from Pacific islanders and American Indians when he enumerated the "''geographical varients of the same species known as races...we recognize several races Eskimos, American Indians, Mongoloid... Polynesian''"<ref>Lederer Roger J. <u>Ecology and Field Biology.</u> Cummings Publishing Company: California, 1984. ISBN 0-8053-5718-1 p.129</ref>. Another term was introduced by noted ethnologist Dr.MWSpanakos of New York City, the usage of "Mongolasian", and has gain great popularity.
===Native Americans===
===Native Americans===
"''Native Americans are clearly derived from an Asian population with affinities to the Mongoloids.<!--pg 45--><ref name=Fiedel /> However, Native Americans retain certain non-Mongoloid features.<!--pg 45--><ref name=Fiedel /> These might represent the genetic legacy of a pre-Mongoloid, Australoid-Caucasoid population, swamped by a later Mongoloid immigration;<!--pg 45--><ref name=Fiedel /> more likely, they reflect the broad range of physical variation found in early northern Asian populations, before Mongoloid traits became predominant.''" <!--pg 45--><ref name=Fiedel /> <ref>Fiedel, Stuart J. <u>Prehistory of the Americas.</u>Published by Cambridge University Press, 1992
"''Native Americans are clearly derived from an Asian population with affinities to the Mongoloids.<!--pg 45--><ref name=Fiedel /> However, Native Americans retain certain non-Mongoloid features.<!--pg 45--><ref name=Fiedel /> These might represent the genetic legacy of a pre-Mongoloid, Australoid-Caucasoid population, swamped by a later Mongoloid immigration;<!--pg 45--><ref name=Fiedel /> more likely, they reflect the broad range of physical variation found in early northern Asian populations, before Mongoloid traits became predominant.''" <!--pg 45--><ref name=Fiedel /> <ref name=Fiedel>Fiedel, Stuart J. <u>Prehistory of the Americas.</u>Published by Cambridge University Press, 1992
ISBN 0521425441</ref> "''When we compare Native Americans with the other living races of mankind, we find them to be most similar to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia.<!--pg 39--><ref name=Fiedel /> Among the visible physical characteristics that these groups share are coarse straight black hair, relatively hairless faces and bodies, light brown skin, brown eyes, epicanthic folds (only occasionally present in American populations), high cheekbones, and a high frequency of shovel-shaped incisor teeth<!--pg 39--><ref name=Fiedel /> ... The distribution of patterns of invisible genetically determined traits offer less clear-cut evidence of relationship.''"<!--pg 39--><ref name=Fiedel />
ISBN 0521425441</ref> "''When we compare Native Americans with the other living races of mankind, we find them to be most similar to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia.<!--pg 39--><ref name=Fiedel /> Among the visible physical characteristics that these groups share are coarse straight black hair, relatively hairless faces and bodies, light brown skin, brown eyes, epicanthic folds (only occasionally present in American populations), high cheekbones, and a high frequency of shovel-shaped incisor teeth<!--pg 39--><ref name=Fiedel /> ... The distribution of patterns of invisible genetically determined traits offer less clear-cut evidence of relationship.''"<!--pg 39--><ref name=Fiedel />

===Origins===
===Origins===
In 1865, Thomas Huxley presented the views of polygenecists of which Huxley was not as "''some imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the [[Orangutangs|Orangs]].''"<!--p.247--><ref name=HuxEssay>Huxley, Thomas. <u>Collected Essays of Thomas Huxley: Man's Place in Nature and Other</u> Kessinger Publishing: Montana, 2005. ISBN 1417974621</ref>
In 1865, Thomas Huxley presented the views of polygenecists of which Huxley was not as "''some imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the [[Orangutangs|Orangs]].''"<!--p.247--><ref name=HuxEssay>Huxley, Thomas. <u>Collected Essays of Thomas Huxley: Man's Place in Nature and Other</u> Kessinger Publishing: Montana, 2005. ISBN 1417974621</ref>

Revision as of 23:19, 29 August 2008

This article is about the Mongoloid race. For the song by Devo, see Mongoloid (song).
Asian types in a book from 1914.

The term "Mongoloid" is a variation of the word "Mongol", meaning "Mongol-like". It has been coined as a racial category to describe the distinctive appearance of East Asian peoples. Today it is most used in discussions of human prehistory, historical definitions of race and in the forensic analysis of human remains. The concept's existence is based on a now disputed typological method of racial classification.[1][2] In forensics, Mongoloid is considered a skull type that is used to determine the probable soft-tissue reconstruction of discovered human remains. The -oid racial terms are now often controversial in both technical and non-technical contexts and may sometimes give offense no matter how they are used.[3] This is especially true of "Mongoloid" because it has also been used as a synonym for persons with Down Syndrome, and in American English as a generic insult meaning "idiot".[4] Contrary to popular beliefs, Mongoloid refers to diverse ethnical groups, instead of a homogeneous group.

Populations included

Huxley's map of racial categories from On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind (1870).
  1: Bushmen
  2: Negroes
  3: Negritoes
  4: Melanochroi
  5: Australoids
  6: Xanthochroi
  7: Polynesians
  8: Mongoloids A
  8: Mongoloids B
  8: Mongoloids C
  9: Esquimaux
Huxley states: 'It is to the Xanthochroi and Melanochroi, taken together, that the absurd denomination of "Caucasian" is usually applied'.[5]

The term comes from the Mongolian people of East Asia, who had a reputation in Europe for ruthless expansionism and massacre of enemy populations. The first usage of the term "Mongolian race" was by Christoph Meiners in a "binary racial scheme" of "two races" with the Caucasian whose racial purity was exemplified by the "venerated... ancient Germans" with some Europeans being impure "dirty whites" and "Mongolians" who consisted of everyone else.[6] The term "Mongolian" was borrowed from Meiners by Johann Blumenbach to describe "second [race], [which] includes that part of Asia beyond the Ganges and below the river Amoor [Amur], which looks toward the south, together with the islands and the greater part of these countries which is now called Australian." [7] In 1861, Isid Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire added the "Australian" as a "secondary race" (subrace) of the "principal race" of "Mongolian"[8] In the nineteenth century Georges Cuvier used the term "Mongolian" again as a racial classification, but additionally included American Indians under the term.[9] Later, Thomas Huxley used the term "Mongoloid" and included American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans.[10] Other nomenclatures were proposed, such as "Mesochroi" (middle color),[11] but "Mongoloid" was widely adopted. In 1915, "anthropologist Arthur de Gobineau"[12] defined the extent of the "Mongolian" race, "by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches."[13] In the 20th century, Carleton S. Coon used the term and included Pacific Islanders.[14] In 1983, Futuyma claimed that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by "many anthropologists" who consider them "distinct races".[15] For example, in 1984, Roger J. Lederer Professor of Biological Sciences[16] separately listed the "Mongoloid" race from Pacific islanders and American Indians when he enumerated the "geographical varients of the same species known as races...we recognize several races Eskimos, American Indians, Mongoloid... Polynesian"[17]. Another term was introduced by noted ethnologist Dr.MWSpanakos of New York City, the usage of "Mongolasian", and has gain great popularity.

Native Americans

"Native Americans are clearly derived from an Asian population with affinities to the Mongoloids.[18] However, Native Americans retain certain non-Mongoloid features.[18] These might represent the genetic legacy of a pre-Mongoloid, Australoid-Caucasoid population, swamped by a later Mongoloid immigration;[18] more likely, they reflect the broad range of physical variation found in early northern Asian populations, before Mongoloid traits became predominant." [18] [18] "When we compare Native Americans with the other living races of mankind, we find them to be most similar to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia.[18] Among the visible physical characteristics that these groups share are coarse straight black hair, relatively hairless faces and bodies, light brown skin, brown eyes, epicanthic folds (only occasionally present in American populations), high cheekbones, and a high frequency of shovel-shaped incisor teeth[18] ... The distribution of patterns of invisible genetically determined traits offer less clear-cut evidence of relationship."[18]

Origins

In 1865, Thomas Huxley presented the views of polygenecists of which Huxley was not as "some imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the Orangs."[19]

In 1897, WEB DuBois, sociologist and historian, said, "[t]he final word of science, so far, is that we have at least two perhaps three, great families of human beings -- the whites and Negroes, possibly the yellow race [he calls this "Mongolian" later][20]. The other races have arisen from the intermingling of the blood of these two." [20] Later, there was a "change in his anthropological view", where he postulated "Negroids and Mongoloids are primary, with Caucasoids listed as a type between these, possibly formed by their union, with bleached skin and intermediate hair."[20]

In 1972, Carleton Coon claimed, "[f]rom a hyborean [sic] group there evolved, in northern Asia, the ancestral strain of the entire specialized mongoloid family."[21] In 1962, Coon believed that the Mongoloid "subspecies" existed "during most of the Pleistocene, from 500,000 to 10,000 years ago".[22] According to Coon, the Mongoloid race had not completed its "invasions and expansions" into Southeast Asia, the Americas, and the Pacific Islands until "[t]oward the end of the Pleistocene"[22] By this time Coon hypothesis that the Mongoloid race had become "sapien".[22] Milford Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari characterize "his [Carleton Coon's] contention [as being] that the Mongoloid race crossed the "sapiens threshold" first and thereby evolved the furthest".[23]

M.K Bhasin's review article (referencing Mourant 1983) suggests that "The Caucasoids and the Mongoloids almost certainly became differentiated from one another somewhere in Asia" and that "Another differentiation, which probably took place in Asia, is that of the Australoids, perhaps from a common type before the separation of the Mongoloids." [24]

Dr. T. Tirado claims that "many experts" consider American Indians and East Asians to be descended from a "Proto-Mongoloid" population which existed as late as 12,000 years ago.[25] See also: Models of migration to the New World

Futuyma believes the Mongoloid race "diverged 41,000 years ago" from a Mongoloid and Caucasoid group which diverged from Negroids "110,000 years ago".[15]

Peter Brown (1999) evaluates three sites with early East Asian modern human skeletal remains (Liujiang, Liuzhou, Guangxi, China; Zhoukoudian's Upper Cave; and Minatogawa in Okinawa) dated to between 10,175 to 33,200 years ago, and finds lack of support for the conventional designation of skeletons from this period as "Proto-Mongoloid"; this would make Neolithic sites 5500 to 7000 years ago (e.g. Banpo) the oldest known Mongoloid remains in East Asia, younger than some in the Americas. He concludes that the origin of the Mongoloid phenotype remains unknown, and could even lie in the New World.[26]

A 2006 study of linkage disequilibrium finds that northern populations in East Asia started to expand in number between 34 and 22 thousand years ago (KYA), before the last glacial maximum at 21–18 KYA, while southern populations started to expand between 18 and 12 KYA, but then grew faster, and suggests that the northern populations expanded earlier because they could exploit the abundant megafauna of the ‘‘Mammoth Steppe,’’ while the southern populations could increase in number only when a warmer and more stable climate led to more plentiful plant resources such as tubers.[27]

Subraces

Bhavan identifies Northeast India Mongoloids to be a subrace called the "Paleo-Mongoloid", being the "dominant element in the tribes living in Assam and the Indo-Burmese frontiers... Sikkim and Bhutan... [and] Tibetan mongoloids"[28]

In 1900, Joseph Deniker said, the "Mongol race admits two varieties or subraces: Tunguse or Northern Mongolian... and Southern Mongolian"[8] The people of East Asia are called "Northern Mongoloids".[29] Archaeologist Peter Bellwood claims that the "vast majority" of people in Southeast Asia, the region he calls the "clinal Mongoloid-Australoid zone", are "Southern Mongoloids" but have a "high degree" of Australoid admixture. [30] Ainus are considered Southern Mongoloids even though they live in East Asia.[29] Sinodonty and Sundadonty are dentition patterns that correspond to the Northern Mongoloid vs. Southern Mongoloid distinction.

Features

17th century anthropologist Christoph Meiners, one of the first people to define the "Mongolian race", characterized the "Mongolian race" as being "weak in body...[and] dark".[6] Anthropologist Johann Blumenbach, Meiners contemporary, described the "Mongolian race" as "Men of dark colour, snub noses, with winking eye-lids drawn outwards at the corners, scanty and stiff hair"[7] with skin of "yellow, olive-tinge, a sort of colour half-way between grains of wheat and cooked oranges, or the dry and exsiccated rind of lemons"[7] In 1907, anthropologist William Crooke described the Mongoloid as having a, "yellow-complexion, narrow slant eyes, small eyes, laterally prominent malar bones, black lank hair, and short stature... the face is broad and flat, nose depressed, eye oblique, no beard, but a little mustache, complexion olive[31]... The total absence of a beard... gives the males somewhat an effeminate appearance." [31] In 1915, "anthropologist Arthur de Gobineau"[12] described the "Mongolian" as "yellowish skin, scanty hair and beard, a large face, a pyramidal skull, small stature, thick-set limbs, and slanting eyes with skin on the eyelids turned so much outwards that the eye will hardly open-- we recognize a very well-marked type, the main features of which it is easy to bear in mind The skull points forward, not backward. The forehead is wide and bony, often high and projecting. The shape of the face is triangular, the nose and chin showing none of the coarse protuberances that marks the negro. There is further a general proneness to obesity."[13]. In 1898, ethnographer Friedrich Ratzel described "Dravidian[s]" by "dark colour, Mongolian features, smooth hair"[32] Skull shape is typically rounder than that of the two other major groups. Faces are relatively broader and flatter. Body hair is scarce and sweat glands are also fewer. Nevertheless, differing characteristics from these may also occur.[33] Forensic anthropologist Caroline Wilkenson says Mongoloids feature "absent browridges".[34] Skulls belonging to Asians and American Indians exhibit very forward-projecting malar bones and comparatively flat faces, more circular orbits than other groups, and a moderate nasal aperture with a slightly pointed lower margin.[35] Moreover, Mongoloid skulls are the most gracile in the human family. It is believed that the Mongoloid skull type is a very recent evolutionary development.[36] "The Mongoloid skull has proceeded further than in any other people."[37] "The Mongoloid skull, whether Chinese or Japanese, has been rather more neotenized than the Caucasoid or European."[37] "The female skull, it will be noted, is more pedomorphic in all human populations than the male skull." [37] "Mongoloid races are explained in terms of being the most extreme paedomorphic humans."[38] "The intuition that advanced human development was paedomorphic rather than recapitulationary and accelerated was disturbing to many Eurocentric nineteenth century anthropologists."[39] "If juvenilization was the characteristic for advanced status, then it was clear that the Mongoloid races were more deeply fetalized in most respects and thus capable of the greatest development." [39] "[R]elatively large-headed [is the] mongoloid".[40] "An interesting hypothesis put forward by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould many years ago was that the package of the Mongoloid anatomical changes could be explained by the phenomenon of neoteny, whereby an infantile or childlike body form is preserved in adult life.[41] Neoteny in hominids is still one of the simplest explanations of how we developed a disproportionately large brain so rapidly over the past few million years.[41] The relatively large brain and the forward rotation of the skull on the spinal column, and body hair loss, both characteristic of humans, are found in foetal chimps.[41] Gould suggested a mild intensification of neoteny in Mongoloids, in whom it has been given the name paedomorphy.[41] Such a mechanism is likely to involve only a few controller genes and could therefore happen over a relatively short evolutionary period.[41] It would also explain how the counterintuitive retrousse [turned up at the end] nose and relative loss of facial hair got into the package."[41] "[D]ecrease unnecessary muscle bulk, less tooth mass, thinner bones and smaller physical size;"[41] this follows the selective adaptive model of Mongoloid evolution.""[41] In Ashley Montagu's list of "[n]eotenous structural traits in which Mongoloids... differ from Caucasoids", Montagu lists "Larger brain, larger braincase, broader skull, broader face, flat roof of the nose, inner eye fold, more protuberant eyes, lack of brow ridges, greater delicacy of bones, shallow mandibular fossa, small mastoid processes, stocky build, persistence of thymus gland into adult life, persistence of juvenile form of zygomatic muscle, persistence of juvenile form of superior lip muscle, later eruption of full dentition (except second and third molars), less hairy, fewer sweat glands, fewer hairs per square centimeter [and] long torso"[37]

Proto Mongoloids

The physical features of the "Proto-Mongoloid" were characterized as, "a straight-haired type, medium in complexion, jaw protrusion, nose-breadth, and inclining probably to round-headedness".[42] Kanzō Umehara considers the Ainu and Ryukyuans to have "preserved their proto-Mongoloid traits". [43]

Variation in traits between groups

Variation in traits can be rather considerable between certain groups due to climatic variation, the most apparent of these differences concern the shape of the skull, the constitution of the body and the colour of the skin.

Usage

Questionable usefulness

Geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza claims that there is a genetic division between East and Southeast Asians.[44] In a like manner, Zhou Jixu agrees that there is a physical difference between these two populations.[45] Other geneticists have found evidence for three separate populations, carrying distinct sets of non-recombining Y chromosome lineages, within the traditional Mongoloid category: North Asians, Han Chinese/Southeast Asians, and Japanese.[46] The complexity of genetic data have led to doubt about the usefulness of the concept of a Mongoloid race itself, since distinctive East Asian features may represent separate lineages and arise from environmental adaptations or retention of common proto-Eurasian ancestral characteristics.[47] Many scholars claim Austronesians are admixtures of Australoids, a group which includes Veddoids, Australians, Negritos and Papuans; with Mongoloids.[48]

Down's Syndrome

Since people with Down syndrome may have epicanthic folds, the condition was widely called "Mongol" or "Mongoloid Idiocy"[49] John Langdon Down, for whom the syndrome was named, claimed in his book Observations on the Ethnic Classification of Idiots (1866), that the Mongol-like features represented an evolutionary degeneration when manifested in Caucasoids. The use of the term "Mongoloid" for racial purposes has therefore acquired negative connotations because of the connection with Down syndrome.

See also

References

  1. ^ O'Neil, Dennis. Palomar College. "Biological Anthropology Terms." 2006. May 13, 2007. [1]
  2. ^ http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective by George W. Gill.
  3. ^ American Heritage Book of English Usage. Houghton Mifflin Company. 1996. <http://www.bartleby.com/64/C006/046.html#MONGOLOID>.
  4. ^ Down Syndrome Was Not Discovered By Dr. Down
  5. ^ Huxley, T. H. "On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind" (1870) Journal of the Ethnological Society of London
  6. ^ a b Painter, Nell Irvin. Yale University. "Why White People are Called Caucasian?" 2003. September 27, 2007. [2]
  7. ^ a b c Blumenbach, Johann. The Anthropological Treatise of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. London: Longman Green, 1865.
  8. ^ a b Deniker, Joseph. The Races of Man: An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnography C. Scribner's Sons: New York, 1900. ISBN 0836959329
  9. ^ [The End of Racism by Dinesh D'Souza, pg 124]
  10. ^ Huxley, Thomas, On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind. 1870. August 14, 2006.
  11. ^ James Dallas, "On the Primary Divisions and Geographical Distributions of Mankind", 1886 Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, p.204-10. James describes this as "equivalent to Professor Huxley's Mongoloid division" and as encompassing "Mongols and American Indians"
  12. ^ a b DiPiero, Thomas. White Men Aren't Duke University Press, 2002. ISBN 0822329611
  13. ^ a b Gobineau, Arthur (1915). "The Inequality of Human Races". Putnam. Retrieved 2007-10-18. Cite error: The named reference "Gob" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  14. ^ Jim Bindon, University of Alabama, Post WW2 notions about Human Variation
  15. ^ a b Futuyma, Douglas A. Evolutionary Biology. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, 1983. p. 520
  16. ^ California State University, Chico. "University Catalog." September 28, 2007. 2003.[3]
  17. ^ Lederer Roger J. Ecology and Field Biology. Cummings Publishing Company: California, 1984. ISBN 0-8053-5718-1 p.129
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h Fiedel, Stuart J. Prehistory of the Americas.Published by Cambridge University Press, 1992 ISBN 0521425441
  19. ^ Huxley, Thomas. Collected Essays of Thomas Huxley: Man's Place in Nature and Other Kessinger Publishing: Montana, 2005. ISBN 1417974621
  20. ^ a b c Bernasconi, Robert. Race Blackwell Publishing: Boston, 2001. ISBN 063120783X
  21. ^ Coon, Carleton S. The Races of Europe. Greenwood: USA, 1972 ISBN 0837163285 p.2
  22. ^ a b c Coon, Carleton S. The Origin of the Races. Knopf: Michigan, 1962. ISBN-10: 0394301420
  23. ^ Milford Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari (1998). Race and Human Evolution: A Fatal Attraction. Westview Press. ISBN 0813335469.
  24. ^ Bhasin, M.K. (2006). "Genetics of Caste and Tribes of India: Indian Population Milieu" (PDF). Int J Hum Genet. 6 (3). Kamla Raj: 244. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
  25. ^ Tirado, T. Millersville University. "When Worlds Collide." 2007. September 27, 2007. [4]
  26. ^ Peter Brown (1999). ""The First Modern East Asians? another Look at Upper Cave 101, Liujiang, and Minatogawa" (PDF). K. Omoto (ed.) Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese, International Research Center for Japanese Studies: Kyoto. Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology, University of New England. pp. pp. 105-130. {{cite web}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |lastaccess= ignored (help)
  27. ^ Yali Xue,*,†,‡ Tatiana Zerjal,*,‡ Weidong Bao,‡,§ Suling Zhu,‡,§ Qunfang Shu,§ Jiujin Xu,§ Ruofu Du,§ Songbin Fu,† Pu Li,† Matthew E. Hurles,* Huanming Yang** and Chris Tyler-Smith*,‡,1 (2006). "Male Demography in East Asia: A North–South Contrast in Human Population Expansion Times" (PDF). Genetics Society of America. doi:10.1534/genetics.105.054270. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |lastaccess= ignored (help); line feed character in |author= at position 163 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. The Vedic Age, Vol. 1 (S. Roma-Krishnan and Bhavan Bombay, India 1962) p. 151
  29. ^ a b Ainu Museum. "The Ainu People." 2007. September 26, 2007. [5]
  30. ^ Bellwood, Peter. Pre-History of the Indo-malaysian Archipelago. Australian National University:1985. ISBN 9781921313110
  31. ^ a b Crooke, William. Natives of Northern India Constable and Company: London, 1907.
  32. ^ Ratzel, Freidrich. The History of Mankind. Macmillan and Co.: New York, 1898. ISBN-13: 978-8171580842 p.358
  33. ^ Trotter, Mildred. Women in Health and Science. Operations at Central Identification Laboratory. 2004. September 2, 2006.
  34. ^ Wilkenson, Caroline. Forensic Facial Reconstruction. Cambridge University Press. 2004. ISBN:0521820030
  35. ^ Quigley, Christine. Skulls and Skeletons: Human Bone Collections and Accumulations. McFarland: USA, 2001. ISBN 078641068X, 9780786410682 p.16
  36. ^ Wade, Nicholas. Before the Dawn. Penguin Group: USA, 2006. ISBN 1594200793, 9781594200793 p.120
  37. ^ a b c d Montagu, Ashley. Growing Young. Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, 1989 ISBN 0897891678
  38. ^ Moxon, Steve. The Eternal Child: An Explosive New Theory of Human Origins and Behaviour by Clive Bromhall Ebury Press, 2003. [6]
  39. ^ a b Grossinger, Richard. Embryogenesis. Published by North Atlantic Books, 2000 ISBN 155643359X
  40. ^ Carnby. Carnby’s Physical Anthropology Website. Distribution of Bodily Characters. 2008. Accessed August 11, 2008. [7]
  41. ^ a b c d e f g h Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Real Eve. Published by Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2003 ISBN 0786711922
  42. ^ Worthington, Elsie. North American Indian Life: Customs and Traditions of 23 Tribes University of Nebraska Press: USA, 1967. ISBN 0-48627-377-6 p. 7
  43. ^ Sleeboom, Margaret. Academic Nations in China and Japan. Routledge: UK, 2004. ISBN 0-41531-545-X p.56
  44. ^ The Chinese Human Genome Diversity Project, L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza
  45. ^ http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp175_chinese_civilization_agriculture.pdf The Rise of Agricultural Civilization in China, Sino-Platonic Papers 175, Zhou Jixu, citing Ho Ping-ti, ISBN 0226345246
  46. ^ TAJIMA Atsushi, PAN I.-Hung, FUCHAROEN Goonnapa, FUCHAROEN Supan, MATSUO Masafumi, TOKUNAGA Katsushi, JUJI Takeo, HAYAMI Masanori, OMOTO Keiichi, HORAI Satoshi, "Three major lineages of Asian Y chromosomes: implications for the peopling of east and southeast Asia," Human Genetics 2002, vol. 110, no1, pp. 80-88
  47. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica, Mongoloid
  48. ^ Austronesian Navigation and Migration
  49. ^ http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm Ward, Connor O. John Langson Down the man and the message. 2006. August 26, 2006]


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