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[[Image:Néolithique 0001.jpg|thumb|An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.]] |
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{{Neolithic}} |
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| style="border-bottom:3px solid; background:#efefef;" | <br>This time period is part of the<br>[[Holocene]] epoch. |
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The '''Neolithic''' Age, Era, or Period, or '''New Stone Age''', was a period in the development of [[human]] [[technology]], beginning about 9500 [[Common Era|BCE]] in the [[Middle East]]<ref name=Bellwood> |
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[http://www.amazon.com/gp/sitbv3/reader?asin=0631205667&pageID=S00N&checkSum=n2ERnZHriUc/fSrW7Myf4CEtIc8x5mVhcabli2BNrEs=# Figure 3.3] from ''First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies'' by [[Peter Bellwood]], 2004</ref> that is traditionally considered the last part of the [[Stone Age]]. The Neolithic followed the terminal [[Holocene]] ''[[Epipalaeolithic]]'' period, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "[[Neolithic Revolution]]" and ending when [[metal]] [[tool]]s became widespread in the Copper Age ([[chalcolithic]]) or [[Bronze Age]] or developing directly into the [[Iron Age]], depending on geographical region. The Neolithic is not a specific chronological period, but rather a suite of behavioral and cultural characteristics, including the use of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals. <ref>Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as "Early Village Communities", although this has not gained wide acceptance.</ref> |
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| style="background:#efefef;" | [[Holocene]]<br> |
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:[[Mesolithic]] or [[Epipaleolithic]]<br> |
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::[[Kebaran]] culture<br> |
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::[[Natufian]] culture<br> |
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:Neolithic |
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::[[Halafian]] culture<br> |
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::[[Hassuna]] culture<br> |
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::[[Mehrgarh]] culture<br> |
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::[[Ubaid]] culture<br> |
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::[[Uruk]] culture<br> |
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:[[Chalcolithic]] |
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::[[Mehrgarh]] culture<br> |
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::[[Yamna culture|Kurgan]] culture<br> |
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|} |
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[[image:Néolithique 0001.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.]] [[Image:Jfb_skara_brae.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Excavated dwellings at [[Skara Brae]] Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village.]] |
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[[Image:SkaraBraeJM.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skara Brae [[Scotland]]. Evidence of home furnishings i.e. shelves, in Europe's most complete Neolithic village]] |
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[[image:European Middle Neolithic.gif|thumb|right|250px|Map showing distribution of some of the main culture complexes in [[Neolithic Europe]], ca.4500 BC]] |
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The '''Neolithic'''<ref>The name was invented by [[John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury|Sir John Lubbock]] in 1865 as a refinement of the [[three-age system]]. The term is more commonly used in the [[Old World]], as its application to cultures in the [[Americas]] and [[Oceania]] that did not fully develop metal-working technology raises problems. The term "Neolithic" thus does not refer to a specific chronological period, but rather to a suite of behavioural and cultural characteristics including the use of (both wild and domestic) crops and the use of domesticated animals. Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as Early Village Communities, although this has not gained wide acceptance.</ref>, or "New" [[Stone Age]], was a period in the development of [[human]] [[technology]] that is traditionally the last part of the [[Stone Age]]. The Neolithic era follows the terminal [[Holocene]] ''[[Epipalaeolithic]]'' periods, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "[[Neolithic Revolution]]" and ending when [[metal]] [[tool]]s became widespread in the Copper Age ([[chalcolithic]]) or [[Bronze Age]] or developing directly into the [[Iron Age]], depending on geographical region. |
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Neolithic culture began in the [[Levant]] ([[Jericho]], modern-day West Bank) about 9500 BCE. It developed directly from the [[Epipaleolithic]] [[Natufian]] culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild [[cereal]]s, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (12,500–9500 BCE or 12,000-9500 BCE<ref name=Bellwood/>). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the [[Younger Dryas]] are thought to have forced people to develop farming. By 9500–9000 BCE, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to [[Asia Minor]], North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and [[domestication|domesticated]], which included [[einkorn wheat]], [[millet]] and [[spelt]], and the keeping of [[dog]]s, [[sheep]] and [[goat]]s. By about 8000 BCE, it included domesticated [[cattle]] and [[pig]]s, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of [[pottery]].<ref>The [[potter's wheel]] was a later refinement that revolutionized the pottery industry.</ref> |
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Neolithic culture appeared in the [[Levant]] (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 8500 BC. It developed directly from the [[Epipaleolithic]] [[Natufian]] culture in the region, whose people pioneered wild cereal use, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (11,000–8500 BC). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the [[Younger Dryas]] forced people to develop farming. By 8500–8000 BC farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Anatolia, North Africa and North Mesopotamia. |
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Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the [[Ancient Near East|Near East]] did not use pottery, and, in [[Prehistoric Britain|Britain]], it remains unclear to what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as [[Africa]], South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. [[Jōmon period|Early Japanese]] societies used pottery ''before'' developing agriculture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Habu|first=Junko|year=2004|title=Ancient Jomon of Japan|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521772133 (HB), ISBN 0521776708 (PB)|pages=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Japan Echo, Inc.|title=Jomon Fantasy: Resketching Japan's Prehistory|url=http://web-japan.org/trends00/honbun/tj990615.html|date=June 22, 1999|publisher=Trends in Japan|accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first=Charles T.|last=Keally|title='Fakery' at the Beginning, the Ending and the Middle of the Jomon Period|journal=Bulletin of the International Jomon Culture Conference|volume=1|year=2004|url=http://www.jomon.or.jp/ebulletin11.html|accessdate=2008-04-14}}</ref> |
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Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of crops, both wild and [[domestication|domesticated]], which included [[einkorn wheat]], [[millet]] and [[spelt]] and the keeping of [[sheep]] and [[goat]]s. By about 7000 BC it included domesticated [[cattle]] and [[pig]]s, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery.<ref>The [[potter's wheel]] was a later refinement that revolutionized the pottery industry.</ref> Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the [[Ancient Near East|Near East]] did not use pottery, and, in [[Prehistoric Britain|Britain]], it remains unclear to what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as [[Africa]], South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures which arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies used pottery in the Mesolithic for example. |
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Unlike the [[Paleolithic]], where more than one human species existed, only one human species (''[[Homo sapiens sapiens]]'') reached the neolithic. |
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== Periods == |
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The term ''Neolithic'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''νεολιθικός'', ''neolithikos'', from ''νέος'' ''neos'', "new" + ''λίθος'' ''lithos'', "stone", literally meaning "New [[Stone Age]]." The term was invented by [[John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury|Sir John Lubbock]] in 1865 as a refinement of the [[three-age system]]. |
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In [[Southwest Asia]] (i.e., the [[Middle East]]), cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing soon after the [[10th millennium BC]]. Early development occurred in the [[Levant]] (e.g., [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] and [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern [[Anatolia]] and northern [[Mesopotamia]] by ca. [[8000 BC]]. |
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=== Neolithic 1 — Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) === |
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== Periods by pottery phase == |
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The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) began in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine & Jbeil (Byblos), Lebanon) around 8500 to 8000 BC. The actual date is not established with certainty due to different results in carbon dating by the British Museum and Philiadelphia laboratories. |
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The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true [[farming]]. In the proto-Neolithic [[Natufian]] cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. By the Neolithic 1 true farming began, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (animal husbandry and animal breeding). |
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In [[Southwest Asia]] (i.e., the [[Middle East]]), cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BCE<ref name=Bellwood/> and in [[Africa]] possibly as early as the 15th millennium BCE.<ref>(Van Sertima, 1984, p. 20)</ref><ref>[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/K-12/African_Science.html African Science in School Curriculum]</ref> Early development occurred in the [[Levant]] (e.g., [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] and [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern [[Anatolia]] and northern [[Mesopotamia]] by ca. 8000 BCE. |
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Settlements became more permanent with '''circular houses''', much like those of the Natufians, with '''single rooms'''. However, these houses were for the first time made of '''mudbricks'''. The husband had one house, while each of his wives lived with their children in surrounding houses. The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (like Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. There are some enclosures that suggest grain storage. |
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The [[prehistoric Beifudi site]] near Yixian in [[Hebei]] Province, [[China]], contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the [[Cishan culture|Cishan]] and [[Xinglongwa culture|Xinglongwa]] cultures of about 7,000–8,000 [[Before Present|BP]], neolithic cultures east of the [[Taihang Mountains]], filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.<ref name="archdis">{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.kaogu.cn/en/detail.asp?ProductID=982 |
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|title=New Archaeological Discoveries and Researches in 2004 — The Fourth Archaeology Forum of CASS |
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|publisher=Institute of Archaeology — Chinese Academy of Social Sciences |
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|accessdate=2007-09-18 |
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}} |
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</ref> |
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=== Neolithic 1 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) === |
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The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) began in the [[Levant]] ([[Jericho]], Palestine & Jbeil ([[Byblos]]), Lebanon) around 9500 to 9000 BCE. The actual date is not established with certainty due to different results in [[carbon dating]] by scientists in the [[British Museum]] and Philadelphia laboratories{{cn}}. |
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=== Neolithic 2 — Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) === |
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An early temple area in southeastern Turkey at [[Göbekli Tepe]] dated to 10,000 BCE may be regarded as the beginning of the Neolithic 1. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. This temple site is the oldest known man-made place of worship{{cn}}. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which may have supported roofs. |
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The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 7500 to 7000 BC in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine). Like the PPNA dates there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. |
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Settlements have '''rectangular mudbrick houses''' where the family lived together in single or '''multiple rooms'''. Burial findings suggest an '''ancestor cult''' where people preserved skulls from the dead which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The dead skull may have been asked for advice and blessings. The rest of the corpse may have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses. |
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The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true [[farming]]. In the proto-Neolithic [[Natufian]] cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. [[Emmer wheat]] was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated ([[animal husbandry]] and [[selective breeding]]). |
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=== Neolithic 3 — Pottery Neolithic (PN) === |
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In the 21st century, remains of figs were discovered in a house in Jericho dated to 9,400 BCE. The figs are of a mutant variety that cannot be pollinated by insects, and therefore the trees can only reproduce from cuttings. This evidence suggests that figs were the first cultivated crop and mark the invention of the technology of farming. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains. (Source: "Ancient Figs May Be First Cultivated Crops" by Christopher Joyce, NPR.org, last accessed 28 January 2009. [http://www.npr.org/s.php?sId=5446137&m=1 ]) |
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The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6000 to 5500 BC in the [[Fertile Crescent]]. By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the [[Halafian]] (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and [[Ubaid]] (Southern Mesopotamia). |
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The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures. |
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Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of [[mudbrick]]s. The husband had one house, while each of his wives lived with their children in surrounding houses.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. There are also some enclosures that suggest grain and meat storage. |
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=== In the Fertile Crescent === |
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=== Neolithic 2 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) === |
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The Levant, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, Northern Mesopotamia. [[Tel Halaf|Halafian]] culture (5500 BC) more... |
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The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8500 BCE in the Levant ([[Jericho]], Palestine)<ref name=Bellwood/>. As with the PPNA dates there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. But this terminological structure is not convenient for southeast [[Anatolia]] and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. |
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Settlements have rectangular mudbrick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an [[ancestor cult]] where people preserved skulls of the dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse may have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses. |
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=== Neolithic 3 – Pottery Neolithic (PN) === |
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The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6500 BCE in the [[Fertile Crescent]]<ref name=Bellwood/>. By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the [[Halafian]] (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and [[Ubaid]] (Southern Mesopotamia). |
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The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BCE, then the [[Bronze Age]] began about 3500 BCE, replacing the Neolithic cultures. |
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== Periods by region == |
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=== Fertile Crescent === |
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Around 9500 BCE, the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] ([[PPNA]]) appeared in the fertile crescent.<ref name=Bellwood/> Around 9,000 BCE during the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] ([[PPNA]]), the world's first town, [[Jericho]], appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2000–3000 people and a massive stone tower.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9043547/Jericho "Jericho"], [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]</ref> Around 6000 BCE the [[Halaf culture]] appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture. |
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=== Southern Mesopotamia === |
=== Southern Mesopotamia === |
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Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall, makes [[irrigation]] systems necessary. [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] culture from 5500 |
Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall, makes [[irrigation]] systems necessary. [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] culture from 5500... more. |
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=== Egypt === |
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In [[Egypt]] pre-dynastic farming communities emerged after 8000 BC, as farming was introduced from the Levant. Two cultures emerged; one in the Upper Nile Region and one in the Lower Nile Region. |
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Africans can be traced to have begun raising and domesticating crops and cattle around 15,000 years ago. African peoples have been discovered to have been raising crops of wheat, barley, lentils, dates and other vegetables and grains as far back as the tenth millennium BCE.<ref name="louisville.edu">[http://louisville.edu/a-s/history/herlin/textsup.htm Ancient Africa: History and Geography]</ref> In Africa, millet and sorghum were domesticated at least 5000 years ago.<ref>[http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/encounter/food/grains.htm Grains]</ref> Food producing economies were established by African people living north of the equator between about 6000 and 1000 BCE.<ref name="louisville.edu"/> |
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=== Europe === |
=== Europe === |
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In southeast [[Neolithic Europe|Europe]] agrarian societies first appeared by ca. 7000 BC, and in [[Central Europe]] by ca. [[5500 BC]]. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the [[Starčevo-Körös]] (Cris), [[Linearbandkeramic]], and [[Vinča culture|Vinča]]. Through a combination of [[cultural diffusion]] and [[human migration|migration of peoples]], the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around [[4500 BC]]. |
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[[Image:European Middle Neolithic.gif|thumb|Map showing distribution of some of the main culture complexes in [[Neolithic Europe]], ca.4500 BCE]] |
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[[Image:Skara Brae house 1 5.jpg|thumb|[[Skara Brae]], Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves).]] |
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[[Image:Orkney Skara Brae.jpg|thumb|Excavated dwellings at [[Skara Brae]] Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village.]] |
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In southeast [[Neolithic Europe|Europe]] agrarian societies first appeared by ca. 7000 BCE,<ref>[http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/HellenicMacedonia/en/img_A11a.html Female figurine, circa 6000 BCE, Nea Nikomidia, Macedonia, Veroia, (Archaeological Museum), Greece]</ref> and in [[Central Europe]] by ca. 5500 BCE. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the [[Sesklo]] culture in Thessaly , which later expanded in the Balkans giving [[Starčevo-Körös]] (Cris), [[Linearbandkeramic]], and [[Vinča culture|Vinča]]. Through a combination of [[cultural diffusion]] and [[human migration|migration of peoples]], the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BCE. The [[Vinča culture]] may have created the earliest system of writing, the [[Vinča signs]], though it is almost universally accepted amongst archeologists{{Who|date=December 2008}} that the [[Sumerian cuneiform]] script was the earliest true form of writing and the [[Vinča signs]] most likely represented [[pictograms]] and [[ideograms]] rather than a truly developed form of writing. The [[megalith]]ic [[temple]] complexes of [[Ġgantija]] on the [[Mediterranean]] [[island]] of [[Gozo Island|Gozo]] (in the [[Malta|Maltese archipelago]]) and of [[Mnajdra]] ([[Malta]]) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to c. 3600 BCE.<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Holies.jpg|thumb|The Holy of Holies, Hypogeum, Malta|{{deletable image-caption|1=Wednesday, 31 December 2008}}]] -->The [[Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni]], [[Paola, Malta|Paola]], Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 B.C.; originally a sanctuary, it became a [[necropolis]], the only prehistoric underground [[temple]] in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. |
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=== South and East Asia === |
=== South and East Asia === |
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The oldest |
The oldest neolithic site in [[South Asia]] is [[Mehrgarh]] in the [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]], [[Pakistan]] from [[7000 BC]]). In [[East Asia]] the earliest sites include [[Pengtoushan culture]] around [[7500 BC]] to [[6100 BC]], [[Peiligang culture]] around [[7000 BC]] to [[5000 BC]]. |
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One of the earliest Neolithic sites in [[India]] is [[Lahuradewa]], at Middle [[Ganges]] region, [[radiocarbon dating|C14 dated]] around 7th millennium BCE.<ref> Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 [http://www.homepages.ucl.ac.uk/~tcrndfu/articles/JWP20.pdf "Ganges Neolithic"]</ref> Recently another site near the confluence of the [[Ganges]] and [[Yamuna]] rivers called [[Jhusi]] yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BCE for its Neolithic levels.<ref> Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 [http://www.uparchaeology.org/pragdhara%20No-16.pdf "Electronic Version p.28"]</ref> A new 2009 report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa shows new C14 datings that range between 8000 BCE and 9000 BCE associated with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South Asia. |
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In South India, the Neolithic began by 3000 BCE and lasted until around 1400 BCE when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BCE in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. |
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In [[East Asia]], the earliest sites include [[Pengtoushan culture]] around 7500 BCE to 6100 BCE, [[Peiligang culture]] around 7000 BCE to 5000 BCE. |
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The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of [[West Papua]] (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone [[adze]]s and axes are used in the present day ({{As of|2008}} AD) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail. |
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=== America === |
=== America === |
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In [[Mesoamerican chronology|Mesoamerica]] a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred for sure around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC, although here the term '''Pre-Classic''' (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, [[Archaic Era]] for the Early Neolithic, and [[Paleo-Indians|Paleo-Indian]] for the preceding period. |
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In [[Mesoamerican chronology|Mesoamerica]], a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BCE, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BCE, although here the term "Pre-Classic" (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, the term [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic Era]] for the Early Neolithic, and [[Paleo-Indians|Paleo-Indian]] for the preceding period, though these cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} |
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==Social organization== |
==Social organization== |
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{{section-stub}} |
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[[Image:Néolithique 0008.jpg|thumb|left|Anthropomorphic Neolithic figurine]] |
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[[image:Néolithique 0008.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Anthropomorphic Neolithic figurine]] |
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During most of the Neolithic people lived in small [[tribe]]s of 150–2000 members that were composed of multiple bands or lineages.<ref name="Leonard D. Katz Rigby 2000 352">{{cite book |title=Evolutionary Origins of Morality: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives |author=Leonard D. Katz |
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There is little [[scientific evidence]] for developed [[hierarchy|hierarchies]] in the Neolithic; hierarchies are more closely associated with the later [[Bronze Age]]. Families and households were still largely economically independent. Excavations in [[Central Europe]] have, however, revealed that early Neolithic [[Linear Ceramic culture]]s ("''Linearbandkeramik''") were building large arrangements of [[circular ditches]] between [[4800 BC]] and [[4600 BC]]. These structures (and their later Neolithic equivalents such as [[causewayed enclosure]]s, [[burial mound]]s, and [[henge]]s) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour. There is also good evidence for fortified settlements at ''Linearbandkeramik'' sites along the [[Rhine]], as well as evidence for inter-group conflict from Neolithic sites in Britain. Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual, whether a '[[Big man (anthropology)|big man]]', or proto-[[Tribal chief|chief]] or a [[matriarch]], functioning as a lineage-group head. These sociopolitical entities later developed into the [[chiefdoms]] of the European [[Bronze Age|Early Bronze Age]]. In the New world, the [[Iroquois]], [[Pueblo people]], [[Maya civilization]] and in Oceania the [[Māori]] are all examples of stone-tool-dependent cultures with complex social and political systems. |
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Rigby |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=inmTyPPdR5oC&pg=RA1-PA158&dq=Neolithic+egalitarianism&lr=&sig=VOAK5WWAg2del4rIQKQIaQ4EGzQ#PRA1-PA158,M1 |year=2000 |location=United kingdom|pages=352 |ibsn=0719056128 |publisher=Imprint Academic}} Page 158</ref> There is little [[scientific evidence]] of developed [[social stratification]] in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later [[Bronze Age]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=haCAIME9vnEC&pg=PA258&dq=neolithic+period+social+stratification&lr=&sig=XNM049JaO8pIIVrel_Uvhj1He28#PPA258,M1 Killen, pg 422.]</ref> Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to [[Polynesia]]n societies such as the [[Ancient Hawaii]]ans, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and [[egalitarian]].<ref name="Leonard D. Katz Rigby 2000 352"/> However, Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the [[Paleolithic]] cultures that preceded them and [[Hunter-gatherer]] cultures in general<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555928_5/Stone_Age.html#howtocite "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007] © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D.</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=3u6JNwMyMCEC&pg=PA422&lpg=PA422&dq=paleolithic+history+violence&source=web&ots=JLvUQmZfSv&sig=CREh_uTCaX3MR8Ncw5ZTp7lUtvA#PPA420,M1 Guthrie, pg 420.]</ref> The [[domestication of animals]] ([[Circa|c.]] 8000 BCE) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced.<ref name="Bahn, Paul 1996">Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The brown Reference Group plc</ref> However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as [[Catalhoyuk]] reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others. |
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==Farming== |
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Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in [[Central Europe]] have revealed that early Neolithic [[Linear Ceramic culture]]s ("''Linearbandkeramik''") were building large arrangements of [[circular ditches]] between 4800 BCE and 4600 BCE. These structures (and their later counterparts such as [[causewayed enclosure]]s, [[burial mound]]s, and [[henge]]s) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour — though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain strong possibilities. |
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A significant and far-reaching shift in human [[subsistence]] and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop [[farm]]ing and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance upon an essentially [[nomad]]ic [[hunter-gatherer]] [[list of subsistence techniques|subsistence technique]] or [[Transhumance|pastoral transhumance]] was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the yield produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to [[town]]s, and later [[city|cities]] and [[state]]s whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands. |
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The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the ''[[Neolithic Revolution]]'', a term first [[neologism|coined]] by the Australian archaeologist [[Vere Gordon Childe]]. |
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There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at ''Linearbandkeramik'' sites along the [[Rhine]], as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a [[palisade]] and an outer ditch.<ref>[http://www.holysmoke.org/fem/fem0156.htm Idyllic Theory of Goddess Creates Storm]</ref><ref>Krause (1998) under External links, places.</ref> Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at [[Herxheim]],<ref>Orschiedt (2006) under External links, Places.</ref> which, whether the site of a massacre or of a martial ritual, demonstrates "...systematic violence between groups." and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=3u6JNwMyMCEC&pg=PA422&lpg=PA422&dq=paleolithic+history+violence&source=web&ots=JLvUQmZfSv&sig=CREh_uTCaX3MR8Ncw5ZTp7lUtvA#PPA422,M1 Guthrie, pg 422]</ref> This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle."<ref>Gimbutas (1991) page 143.</ref> |
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One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was an ability (if conditions allowed) to produce a crop yield which would be surplus to the immediate needs of the community. When such surpluses were produced they could be preserved and sequestered for later use during times of seasonal shortfalls, traded with other communities (giving rise to a nascent non-[[subsistence economy]]), and in general allowed larger populations to be sustained. The storage site might need to be defended from marauders, increasing the cultural investment in a particular site. |
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Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a '[[Big man (anthropology)|big man]]', a proto-[[Tribal chief|chief]] or a [[matriarch]], functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the [[chiefdoms]] of the European [[Bronze Age|Early Bronze Age]].<ref> Ian Kuijt (2000) [http://books.google.com/books?id=kz79KLC6yLoC&pg=PA316&dq=neolithic+society+(general+information)&lr=&sig=Cfzhgod1DrWCne5b61g8GHsS3PI#PPA317,M1 "Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and differentiation" page 317] Springer press</ref> Theories to explain the apparent implied egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the [[Marxist]] concept of [[primitive communism]]. |
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However, it should be noted that early farmers were also adversely affected in times of [[famine]], such as may be caused by [[drought]] or [[pest control|pestilence]]. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent which otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities. Nevertheless, despite what must have been periodic setbacks, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued. |
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==Shelter== |
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[[Image:Neolithic house.JPG|thumb|Reconstruction of Neolithic house in [[Tuzla]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].]] |
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The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the [[Paleolithic]] to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster.<ref name=firstcity>[http://www2.bc.edu/~mcdonadh/course/huyuk.html Shane, Orrin C. III, and Mine Küçuk. "The World's First City."] Archaeology 51.2 (1998): 43–47.</ref> The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses.<ref name=firstcity/> The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept. {{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} |
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Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to variable extents domesticable animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by increase of population above the carrying capacity of the land and high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative [[nutrition]]al benefits and disadvantages of these dietary changes, and their overall impact on early societal development is still the subject of some debate. |
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==Farming== |
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{{Main|Neolithic Revolution}} |
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A significant and far-reaching shift in human [[subsistence]] and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop [[farm]]ing and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially [[nomad]]ic [[hunter-gatherer]] [[list of subsistence techniques|subsistence technique]] or [[Transhumance|pastoral transhumance]] was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to [[town]]s, and later [[city|cities]] and [[Sovereign state|states]] whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands. |
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In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population-dense sites would have altered patterns of [[disease]] and [[sanitation|sanitary]] needs. |
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The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the ''[[Neolithic Revolution]]'', a term [[neologism|coined]] in the 1920s by the Australian archaeologist [[Vere Gordon Childe]]. |
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One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was an ability (if conditions allowed) to produce a crop yield that would be surplus to the immediate needs of the community. When such surpluses were produced they could be preserved and sequestered for later use during times of seasonal shortfalls, traded with other communities (giving rise to a nascent non-[[subsistence economy]]), and in general allowed larger populations to be sustained. The storage site might need to be defended from marauders, increasing the cultural investment in a particular site. |
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[[Image:Halafpottery.jpg|thumb|left|Halaf ware]] |
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However, it should be noted that early farmers were also adversely affected in times of [[famine]], such as may be caused by [[drought]] or [[pest control|pests]]. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities.<ref name="Bahn, Paul 1996"/> Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued. |
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Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative [[nutrition]]al benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes, and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated. |
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In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population-dense sites would have altered [[sanitation]] needs and patterns of [[disease]]. |
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==Technology== |
==Technology== |
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Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting, and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. [[pottery]], bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including [[projectile point]]s, beads, and statuettes. Neolithic peoples in the [[Levant]], [[Anatolia]], [[Syria]], northern [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Central Asia]] were also accomplished builders, utilising mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At [[Çatalhöyük]], houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In [[Europe]], [[Neolithic long house|long houses]] built from [[wattle and daub]] were constructed. Elaborate tombs for the dead were also built. These tombs are particularly numerous in [[Ireland]], where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built [[long barrow]]s and [[chamber tomb]]s for their dead and [[causewayed camp]]s, [[henge]]s, flint mines and [[cursus]] monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like [[salt]] as preservatives. |
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[[Image:Romanian Artifact.jpg|thumb|right|A Neolithic artifact from Romania.]] |
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[[File:SoborulZeitelor3Cucuteni.JPG|thumb|left|Clay Figure from 4900-4750BC depicting a piece of Furniture]] |
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Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as [[sickle]] blades and [[grinding stone]]s) and food production (e.g. [[pottery]], bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including [[projectile point]]s, [[bead]]s, and [[statuette]]s. But what allowed forest clearance on a large scale was the polished [[stone axe]] above all other tools. Together with the [[adze]], fashioning wood for shelter, structures and [[canoe]]s for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland. |
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With limited exceptions (a few copper [[hatchet]]s and [[spear]] heads in the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] region), the peoples of the [[Americas]] and the [[Pacific]] retained the Neolithic level of tool [[technology]] up until the time of European contact. There are numerous examples([[Inca]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], [[Aztec]], [[Iroquois]], [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]], [[Maori]]), however, of development of complex socio-political organization, building technology, scientific knowledge and linguistic culture in these regions that parallel post-neolithic developments in Africa and Eurasia. |
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Neolithic peoples in the [[Levant]], [[Anatolia]], [[Syria]], northern [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Central Asia]] were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At [[Çatalhöyük]], houses were [[plaster]]ed and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In [[Europe]], [[Neolithic long house|long houses]] built from [[wattle and daub]] were constructed. Elaborate [[tomb]]s were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in [[Ireland]], where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the [[British Isles]] built [[long barrow]]s and [[chamber tomb]]s for their dead and [[causewayed camp]]s, [[henge]]s, flint mines and [[cursus]] monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like [[salt]] as preservatives. |
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Neolithic [[List of archaeological sites|settlements]] include: |
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The peoples of the [[Americas]] and the [[Pacific]] mostly retained the Neolithic level of tool [[technology]] until the time of European contact. Exceptions include few copper [[hatchet]]s and [[spear]] heads in the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] region. However, there are numerous examples of development of complex socio-political organization, building technology, scientific knowledge and linguistic culture in these regions that parallel post-neolithic developments in Africa and Eurasia. Those include the [[Inca]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], [[ancient Hawaii]], [[Aztec]], [[Iroquois]], [[Mississippian culture|Mississippian]] and [[Maori]]. |
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:[[Spirit Cave]] in [[Thailand]] |
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:[[Franchthi Cave]] in [[Greece]], epipalaeolithic (ca. 10,000 BC) settlement, reoccupied between 7500–6000 BC |
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:[[Göbekli Tepe]] in Turkey, ca. 9000 BC |
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:[[Gobustan]] in [[Azerbaijan]], ca. 8000-5000 BC |
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:[[Jericho]] in the [[Levant]], Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the earlier [[Epipaleolithic]] [[Natufian culture]] |
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:[[Nevali Cori]] in Turkey, ca. 8000 BC |
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:[[Çatalhöyük]] in [[Turkey]], 7500 BC |
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:[[Pengtoushan culture]] in [[China]], 7500–6100 BC |
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:[['Ain Ghazal]] in [[Jordan]], 7250–5000 BC |
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:[[Sesklo]] in [[Greece]], 6850 BC (with a +/- 660 year margin of error) |
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:[[Dispilio Tablet|Dispilio]] in [[Greece]], ca. 5500 BC |
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:[[Jiahu]] in [[China]], 7000 to 5800 BC |
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:[[Mehrgarh]] in [[Pakistan]], 7000 BC |
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:[[Knossus]] on [[Crete]], ca. 7000 BC |
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:Lahuradewa in [[India]], 6200 BC |
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:Porodin in [[Republic of Macedonia]], 6500 BC [http://www.eliznik.org.uk/EastEurope/History/balkans-map/developed-neolithic.htm#nogo] |
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:Vrshnik (Anzabegovo) in [[Republic of Macedonia]], 6500 BC [http://www.eliznik.org.uk/EastEurope/History/balkans-map/developed-neolithic.htm#nogo] |
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:[[Hemudu culture]] in [[China]], 5000–4500 BC, large scale rice plantation |
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:around 2000 settlements of [[Trypillian culture]], [[5400 BC]] — [[2800 BC]] |
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:[[Knap of Howar]] and [[Skara Brae]], [[Orkney]], [[Prehistoric Scotland|Scotland]], from 3500 BC |
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:[[Brú na Bóinne]] in [[Ireland]], ca. 3500 BC |
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:[[Lough Gur]] in [[Ireland]] from around 3000 BC |
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The world's oldest known engineered [[roadway]], the [[Sweet Track]] in [[England]], also dates from this time. |
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== |
==Footnotes== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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<references /> |
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</div> |
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==Bibliography== |
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Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather, but not cloth. However, [[wool]]en cloth and [[linen]] might have become available during the British Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones which (depending on size) may have served as [[Spindle (textiles)|spindle whorls]] or [[loom]] weights. The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be similar to that worn by [[Ötzi the Iceman]], although he was not British and not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later [[Copper age]]). |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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* Bellwood, Peter. (2004). ''First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies.'' Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20566-7 |
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</div> |
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== |
==See also== |
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[[Image:tripolye hut.jpg|thumb|right|Reconstruction of a Cucuteni-Trypillia hut, in the Tripillia museum, Ukraine.]] |
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*[[European Megalithic Culture]] |
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Neolithic [[List of archaeological sites|human settlements]] include: |
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* [[Tabon Cave|Tabon Cave Complex]] in [[Quezon, Palawan]], [[Philippines]] 5000–2000 BCE {{Citation needed|date=February 2008}} |
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* [[Spirit Cave]] in [[Thailand]], 9000–5500 BCE |
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*[[Padah-Lin Caves]] in [[Myanmar]], ca 11000 BCE |
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* [[Franchthi Cave]] in [[Greece]], epipalaeolithic (ca. 10,000 BCE) settlement, reoccupied between 7500–6000 BCE |
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* [[Göbekli Tepe]] in Turkey, ca. 9000 BCE |
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* [[Jericho]] in [[West bank]], Neolithic from around 8350 BCE, arising from the earlier [[Epipaleolithic]] [[Natufian culture]] |
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* [[Nevali Cori]] in [[Turkey]], ca. 8000 BCE |
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* [[Ganj Dareh]] in [[Iran]], ca. 7000 BCE |
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* [[Çatalhöyük]] in [[Turkey]], 7500 BCE |
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* [[Pengtoushan culture]] in [[China]], 7500–6100 BCE |
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* [['Ain Ghazal]] in [[Jordan]], 7250–5000 BCE |
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* [[Jhusi]] in [[India]], 7100 BCE |
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* [[Petnica]] in [[Serbia]],6000 BCE |
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* [[Sesklo]] in [[Greece]], 6850 BCE (with a ±660 year margin of error) |
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* [[Dispilio Tablet|Dispilio]] in [[Greece]], ca. 5500 BCE |
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* [[Jiahu]] in [[China]], 7000 to 5800 BCE |
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* [[Mehrgarh]] in [[Pakistan]], 7000 BCE |
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* [[Knossus]] on [[Crete]], ca. 7000 BCE |
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* [[Lahuradewa]] in [[India]], 9000 BCE |
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* [[Porodin]] in [[Republic of Macedonia]], 6500 BCE<ref name=eliznik>[http://www.eliznik.org.uk/EastEurope/History/balkans-map/developed-neolithic.htm#nogo Developed Neolithic period, 5500 BC]</ref> |
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* Vrshnik (Anzabegovo) in [[Republic of Macedonia]], 6500 BCE<ref name=eliznik/> |
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* [[Pizzo di Bodi]] (Varese), [[Lombardy]] in [[Italy]], ca 6320 ±80 BCE |
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* Sammardenchia in Friuli, [[Italy]] , ca 6050 ±90 BCE, |
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* [[Cucuteni-Trypillian culture]], ca 5500 BCE, in [[Ukraine]] and [[Romania]] |
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* [[Hemudu culture]] in [[China]], 5000–4500 BCE, large scale rice plantation |
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* around 2000 settlements of [[Trypillian culture]], 5400–2800 BCE |
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* The [[Megalithic Temples of Malta|Megalithic Temples]] of [[Malta]], 3600 BCE |
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* [[Knap of Howar]] and [[Skara Brae]], [[Orkney]], [[Prehistoric Scotland|Scotland]], from 3500 BCE and 3100 BCE respectively |
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* [[Brú na Bóinne]] in [[Ireland]], ca. 3500 BCE |
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* [[Lough Gur]] in [[Ireland]] from around 3000 BCE |
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* [[Lajia]] in [[China]], 2000 BCE |
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The world's oldest known engineered [[roadway]], the [[Sweet Track]] in [[England]], dates from 3800 BCE and the world's oldest free-standing structure is the neolithic temple of [[Ggantija]] in [[Gozo]], [[Malta]]. |
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==See also== |
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{{col-begin}} |
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{{col-break|width=50%}} |
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*[[Megalith]] |
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*[[Neolithic Europe]] |
*[[Neolithic Europe]] |
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*[[Neolithic Revolution]] |
*[[Neolithic Revolution]] |
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*[[Neolithic religion]] |
*[[Neolithic religion]] |
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*[[Neolithic tomb]] |
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{{col-break|width=50%}} |
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*[[Ötzi the Iceman]] |
*[[Ötzi the Iceman]] |
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*[[Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures]] |
*[[Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures]] |
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*[[Paleolithic]] |
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{{col-end}} |
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== External links == |
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==Footnotes== |
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{{Commonscat|Neolithic}} |
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<!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Cite/Cite.php --> |
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*[http://worldmuseumofman.org/neolithic1.htm Neolithic Stone Tools and Artifacts — World Museum of Man] |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4757861.stm Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons] |
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*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/vinca.htm Vincha Neolithic Script] |
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==Bibliography== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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* {{Cite book |
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| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell |
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| isbn = 0631205667 |
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| last = Bellwood |
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| first = Peter |
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| title = First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies |
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| year = 2004 |
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}} |
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*[[Pedersen, Hilthart (2008)]], "Die jüngere Steinzeit auf Bornholm", München & Ravensburg. ISBN 978-3638945592 |
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</div> |
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== |
== Internal links: == |
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*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amioun] |
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{{Commons|Neolithic|Neolithic}} |
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*{{cite web|last=McNamara|first=John|title=Neolithic Period|publisher=World Museum of Man|year=2005|url=http://worldmuseumofman.org/neolithic1.htm|accessdate=2008-04-14}} |
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*{{cite web|last=Rincon|first=Paul|title=Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons|publisher=BBC News|date= 11 May 2006|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4757861.stm|accessdate=2008-04-14}} |
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*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/vinca.htm Vincha Neolithic Script] |
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*[http://ubprehistoire.free.fr/index.html UB Préhistoire — Enseignements sur le Néolithique] |
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Revision as of 13:32, 20 October 2009
This time period is part of the Holocene epoch. |
Holocene
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![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg/250px-N%C3%A9olithique_0001.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/SkaraBraeJM.jpg/250px-SkaraBraeJM.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/European_Middle_Neolithic.gif/250px-European_Middle_Neolithic.gif)
The Neolithic[1], or "New" Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology that is traditionally the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic era follows the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic periods, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution" and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on geographical region.
Neolithic culture appeared in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 8500 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered wild cereal use, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (11,000–8500 BC). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas forced people to develop farming. By 8500–8000 BC farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Anatolia, North Africa and North Mesopotamia.
Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of crops, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt and the keeping of sheep and goats. By about 7000 BC it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery.[2] Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery, and, in Britain, it remains unclear to what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures which arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies used pottery in the Mesolithic for example.
Periods
In Southwest Asia (i.e., the Middle East), cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing soon after the 10th millennium BC. Early development occurred in the Levant (e.g., Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by ca. 8000 BC.
Neolithic 1 — Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)
The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) began in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine & Jbeil (Byblos), Lebanon) around 8500 to 8000 BC. The actual date is not established with certainty due to different results in carbon dating by the British Museum and Philiadelphia laboratories.
The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming. In the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. By the Neolithic 1 true farming began, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (animal husbandry and animal breeding).
Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbricks. The husband had one house, while each of his wives lived with their children in surrounding houses. The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (like Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. There are some enclosures that suggest grain storage.
Neolithic 2 — Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)
The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 7500 to 7000 BC in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine). Like the PPNA dates there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above.
Settlements have rectangular mudbrick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls from the dead which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The dead skull may have been asked for advice and blessings. The rest of the corpse may have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses.
Neolithic 3 — Pottery Neolithic (PN)
The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6000 to 5500 BC in the Fertile Crescent. By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia).
The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures.
In the Fertile Crescent
The Levant, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, Northern Mesopotamia. Halafian culture (5500 BC) more...
Southern Mesopotamia
Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall, makes irrigation systems necessary. Ubaid culture from 5500... more.
Egypt
In Egypt pre-dynastic farming communities emerged after 8000 BC, as farming was introduced from the Levant. Two cultures emerged; one in the Upper Nile Region and one in the Lower Nile Region.
Europe
In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared by ca. 7000 BC, and in Central Europe by ca. 5500 BC. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramic, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC.
South and East Asia
The oldest neolithic site in South Asia is Mehrgarh in the Balochistan, Pakistan from 7000 BC). In East Asia the earliest sites include Pengtoushan culture around 7500 BC to 6100 BC, Peiligang culture around 7000 BC to 5000 BC.
America
In Mesoamerica a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred for sure around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC, although here the term Pre-Classic (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, Archaic Era for the Early Neolithic, and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period.
Social organization
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![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/N%C3%A9olithique_0008.jpg/280px-N%C3%A9olithique_0008.jpg)
There is little scientific evidence for developed hierarchies in the Neolithic; hierarchies are more closely associated with the later Bronze Age. Families and households were still largely economically independent. Excavations in Central Europe have, however, revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later Neolithic equivalents such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henges) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour. There is also good evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as well as evidence for inter-group conflict from Neolithic sites in Britain. Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual, whether a 'big man', or proto-chief or a matriarch, functioning as a lineage-group head. These sociopolitical entities later developed into the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age. In the New world, the Iroquois, Pueblo people, Maya civilization and in Oceania the Māori are all examples of stone-tool-dependent cultures with complex social and political systems.
Farming
A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance upon an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the yield produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands.
The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term first coined by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe.
One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was an ability (if conditions allowed) to produce a crop yield which would be surplus to the immediate needs of the community. When such surpluses were produced they could be preserved and sequestered for later use during times of seasonal shortfalls, traded with other communities (giving rise to a nascent non-subsistence economy), and in general allowed larger populations to be sustained. The storage site might need to be defended from marauders, increasing the cultural investment in a particular site.
However, it should be noted that early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pestilence. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent which otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities. Nevertheless, despite what must have been periodic setbacks, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued.
Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to variable extents domesticable animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by increase of population above the carrying capacity of the land and high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and disadvantages of these dietary changes, and their overall impact on early societal development is still the subject of some debate.
In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population-dense sites would have altered patterns of disease and sanitary needs.
Technology
Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting, and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilising mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatalhöyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs for the dead were also built. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives.
With limited exceptions (a few copper hatchets and spear heads in the Great Lakes region), the peoples of the Americas and the Pacific retained the Neolithic level of tool technology up until the time of European contact. There are numerous examples(Inca, Maya, Aztec, Iroquois, Mississippian, Maori), however, of development of complex socio-political organization, building technology, scientific knowledge and linguistic culture in these regions that parallel post-neolithic developments in Africa and Eurasia.
Neolithic settlements include:
- Spirit Cave in Thailand
- Franchthi Cave in Greece, epipalaeolithic (ca. 10,000 BC) settlement, reoccupied between 7500–6000 BC
- Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, ca. 9000 BC
- Gobustan in Azerbaijan, ca. 8000-5000 BC
- Jericho in the Levant, Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture
- Nevali Cori in Turkey, ca. 8000 BC
- Çatalhöyük in Turkey, 7500 BC
- Pengtoushan culture in China, 7500–6100 BC
- 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan, 7250–5000 BC
- Sesklo in Greece, 6850 BC (with a +/- 660 year margin of error)
- Dispilio in Greece, ca. 5500 BC
- Jiahu in China, 7000 to 5800 BC
- Mehrgarh in Pakistan, 7000 BC
- Knossus on Crete, ca. 7000 BC
- Lahuradewa in India, 6200 BC
- Porodin in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC [1]
- Vrshnik (Anzabegovo) in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC [2]
- Hemudu culture in China, 5000–4500 BC, large scale rice plantation
- around 2000 settlements of Trypillian culture, 5400 BC — 2800 BC
- Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland, from 3500 BC
- Brú na Bóinne in Ireland, ca. 3500 BC
- Lough Gur in Ireland from around 3000 BC
The world's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track in England, also dates from this time.
Footnotes
- ^ The name was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. The term is more commonly used in the Old World, as its application to cultures in the Americas and Oceania that did not fully develop metal-working technology raises problems. The term "Neolithic" thus does not refer to a specific chronological period, but rather to a suite of behavioural and cultural characteristics including the use of (both wild and domestic) crops and the use of domesticated animals. Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as Early Village Communities, although this has not gained wide acceptance.
- ^ The potter's wheel was a later refinement that revolutionized the pottery industry.
Bibliography
- Bellwood, Peter. (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-20566-7
See also
- European Megalithic Culture
- Neolithic Europe
- Neolithic Revolution
- Neolithic religion
- Ötzi the Iceman
- Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- Neolithic Stone Tools and Artifacts — World Museum of Man
- Brutal lives of Stone Age Britons
- Vincha Neolithic Script