Mono Lake: Difference between revisions
fix link |
m →Geology: minor sentence change for specificity |
||
| Line 30: | Line 30: | ||
North of Mono Lake, in the [[Bodie Hills]], there are 28- to 8-million-year-old [[andesite|andesitic]] lavas.<ref name="Tierney2000p44">{{harvnb|Tierney|2000|p=44}}</ref> These lavas, and at least one [[caldera]] (Big Alkali Flat), were part of the last phase of [[subduction zone]]-related [[volcanism]] in the area.<ref group=note>The [[Mendocino Triple Junction]] moved north after this time and the subduction zone immediately west of the Mono area was replaced by the [[San Andreas Fault]].</ref> At that time, the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] was an eroded set of rolling hills and Mono Basin and Owens Valley did not yet exist. About 5 million years ago, [[Basin and Range]] crustal stretching spread to the Mono area.<ref name="Tierney2000p45">{{harvnb|Tierney|2000|p=45}}</ref> From 4.5 to 2.6 million years ago, large volumes of basalt were erupted around what is now Cowtrack Mountain (east and south of Mono Basin); eventually covering {{convert|300|mi2|km2}} and reaching a maximum thickness of {{convert|600|ft|m}}.<ref name="Tierney2000p45"/> Later volcanism in the area occurred 3.8 million to 250,000 years ago.<ref name="Tierney2000p46">{{harvnb|Tierney|2000|p=46}}</ref> This activity was northwest of Mono Basin and included the formation of Aurora Crater, Beauty Peak, Cedar Hill (later an island in the highest stands of Mono Lake), and Mount Hicks. |
North of Mono Lake, in the [[Bodie Hills]], there are 28- to 8-million-year-old [[andesite|andesitic]] lavas.<ref name="Tierney2000p44">{{harvnb|Tierney|2000|p=44}}</ref> These lavas, and at least one [[caldera]] (Big Alkali Flat), were part of the last phase of [[subduction zone]]-related [[volcanism]] in the area.<ref group=note>The [[Mendocino Triple Junction]] moved north after this time and the subduction zone immediately west of the Mono area was replaced by the [[San Andreas Fault]].</ref> At that time, the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] was an eroded set of rolling hills and Mono Basin and Owens Valley did not yet exist. About 5 million years ago, [[Basin and Range]] crustal stretching spread to the Mono area.<ref name="Tierney2000p45">{{harvnb|Tierney|2000|p=45}}</ref> From 4.5 to 2.6 million years ago, large volumes of basalt were erupted around what is now Cowtrack Mountain (east and south of Mono Basin); eventually covering {{convert|300|mi2|km2}} and reaching a maximum thickness of {{convert|600|ft|m}}.<ref name="Tierney2000p45"/> Later volcanism in the area occurred 3.8 million to 250,000 years ago.<ref name="Tierney2000p46">{{harvnb|Tierney|2000|p=46}}</ref> This activity was northwest of Mono Basin and included the formation of Aurora Crater, Beauty Peak, Cedar Hill (later an island in the highest stands of Mono Lake), and Mount Hicks. |
||
Mono Lake is believed to have formed at least 760,000 years ago, dating back to the [[Long Valley Caldera|Long Valley eruption]]. Sediments located below the ash layer hint that Mono Lake could be a remnant of a larger and older lake that once covered a large part of [[Nevada]] and [[Utah]], |
Mono Lake is believed to have formed at least 760,000 years ago, dating back to the [[Long Valley Caldera|Long Valley eruption]]. Sediments located below the ash layer hint that Mono Lake could be a remnant of a larger and older lake that once covered a large part of [[Nevada]] and [[Utah]], which would put it among the oldest lakes in North America. At its height during the last [[ice age]], the lake may have been {{convert|900|ft|m}} deep;<ref name="Harris2005p61"/> prominent old shore lines, called [[strandline]]s by geologists, can be seen above [[Lee Vining, California|Lee Vining]] (near the white "LV") and along volcanic hills northeast of the current lake. |
||
It is an [[endorheic basin]], the terminal lake in a watershed fed by melting runoff, with no outlet to the ocean. Dissolved salts in the runoff thus remain in the lake and raise the water's [[pH]] levels and salt concentration. The [[List of rivers of California#Mono Lake|Mono Lake tributaries]] include Lee Vining Creek and [[Rush Creek]]. |
It is an [[endorheic basin]], the terminal lake in a watershed fed by melting runoff, with no outlet to the ocean. Dissolved salts in the runoff thus remain in the lake and raise the water's [[pH]] levels and salt concentration. The [[List of rivers of California#Mono Lake|Mono Lake tributaries]] include Lee Vining Creek and [[Rush Creek]]. |
||
Revision as of 01:26, 5 October 2010
| Mono Lake | |
|---|---|
| Location | Mono County, California |
| Coordinates | 38°00′59″N 119°00′33″W / 38.0165°N 119.0093°W |
| Type | Endorheic, Monomictic |
| Primary inflows | Rush Creek |
| Primary outflows | Evaporation |
| Catchment area | 2,030 km2 (780 sq mi) |
| Basin countries | United States |
| Max. length | 7.5 km (4.7 mi) |
| Max. width | 7.5 km (4.7 mi) |
| Surface area | 180 km2 (69 sq mi) |
| Average depth | 17 m (56 ft) |
| Max. depth | 48 m (157 ft) |
| Water volume | 2,970,000 acre⋅ft (3,660,000 dam3) |
| Shore length1 | 25 km (16 mi) |
| Surface elevation | 1,944 m (6,378 ft) above sea level |
| Islands | Two major: Negit Island and Paoha Island; numerous minor outcroppings (including tufa rock formations). The lake's water level is notably variable. |
| References | U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Mono Lake |
| 1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure. | |
Mono Lake (pronounced /ˈmoʊnoʊ/, MOE-noe, Template:USdict) is an alkaline and hypersaline lake in Mono County, California. It has an unusually productive ecosystem, and is a critical nesting habitat for several bird species.[1][2]
Geology
North of Mono Lake, in the Bodie Hills, there are 28- to 8-million-year-old andesitic lavas.[3] These lavas, and at least one caldera (Big Alkali Flat), were part of the last phase of subduction zone-related volcanism in the area.[note 1] At that time, the Sierra Nevada was an eroded set of rolling hills and Mono Basin and Owens Valley did not yet exist. About 5 million years ago, Basin and Range crustal stretching spread to the Mono area.[4] From 4.5 to 2.6 million years ago, large volumes of basalt were erupted around what is now Cowtrack Mountain (east and south of Mono Basin); eventually covering 300 square miles (780 km2) and reaching a maximum thickness of 600 feet (180 m).[4] Later volcanism in the area occurred 3.8 million to 250,000 years ago.[5] This activity was northwest of Mono Basin and included the formation of Aurora Crater, Beauty Peak, Cedar Hill (later an island in the highest stands of Mono Lake), and Mount Hicks.
Mono Lake is believed to have formed at least 760,000 years ago, dating back to the Long Valley eruption. Sediments located below the ash layer hint that Mono Lake could be a remnant of a larger and older lake that once covered a large part of Nevada and Utah, which would put it among the oldest lakes in North America. At its height during the last ice age, the lake may have been 900 feet (270 m) deep;[6] prominent old shore lines, called strandlines by geologists, can be seen above Lee Vining (near the white "LV") and along volcanic hills northeast of the current lake.
It is an endorheic basin, the terminal lake in a watershed fed by melting runoff, with no outlet to the ocean. Dissolved salts in the runoff thus remain in the lake and raise the water's pH levels and salt concentration. The Mono Lake tributaries include Lee Vining Creek and Rush Creek.
The lake is in a geologically active area at the north end of the Mono-Inyo Craters volcanic chain and is close to Long Valley Caldera. Geological activity is caused by faulting at the base of the Sierra Nevada, and is associated with the crustal stretching of the Basin and Range Province.
Volcanic activity continues in the Mono Lake vicinity: the most recent eruption occurred 350 years ago at Paoha Island in Mono Lake. Panum Crater (on the south shore of the lake) is an excellent example of a combined rhyolite dome and cinder cone.
Conservation efforts
In order to provide water needs for the growing City of Los Angeles, water was diverted from the Owens River into the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913. In 1941 the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power extended the Los Angeles Aqueduct system further upriver into the Mono Basin. So much water was diverted that evaporation soon exceeded inflow and the surface level of Mono Lake fell rapidly. By 1982 the lake was reduced to 37,688 acres (15,251.8 ha) having lost 31 percent of its 1941 surface area. As a result alkaline sands and once-submerged tufa towers became exposed and Negit Island became landbridged, exposing the nests of gulls to predators (chiefly coyotes) and forcing the breeding colony to abandon the site.
In 1974, Stanford University graduate student David Gaines studied the Mono Lake ecosystem and was instrumental in alerting the public of the effects of the lower water level.[7] The National Science Foundation funded the first comprehensive ecological study of Mono Lake, conducted by Gaines and undergraduate students from UC Davis, UC Santa Cruz, and Earlham College. In June 1977 the UC Davis Institute of Ecology published their report, "An Ecological Study of Mono Lake, California," which alerted California to the ecological dangers posed by the redirection of water away from the lake for municipal uses.[7]
Gaines formed the Mono Lake Committee in 1978. He and Sally Judy, a UC Davis student, led the committee and pursued an informational tour of California. They joined with the Audubon Society to fight a now famous court battle to protect Mono Lake through state public trust laws.[7] While these efforts have resulted in positive change, the surface level is still below historic levels and exposed shorelines are a source of significant alkali dust during periods of high wind.
Owens Lake, the once navigable terminus of the Owens River which had sustained a healthy ecosystem, is now a dry lake bed during dry years due to water diversion beginning in the 1920s. Mono Lake was spared this fate when the California State Water Resources Control Board issued an order to protect Mono Lake and its tributary streams on September 28, 1994. Since that time, the lake level has steadily risen. In 1941 the surface level was at 6,417 feet (1,956 m) above sea level and as of August 2006 it was at 6,385 feet (1,946 m).[8] The lake level of 6,392 feet (1,948 m) above sea level is the goal, a goal made more difficult during years of drought in the American West.
Limnology
The Limnology of the lake shows it contains approximately 280 million tons of dissolved salts, with the salinity varying depending upon the amount of water in the lake at any given time. Before 1941, average salinity was approximately 50 grams per liter (g/l) (compared to a value of 31.5 g/l for the world's oceans). In January 1982, when the lake reached its lowest level of 6,372 feet (1,942 m), the salinity had nearly doubled to 99 g/l. In 2002, it was measured at 78 g/l and is expected to stabilize at an average 69 g/l as the lake replenishes over the next 20 years.[9]
An important, and unintentional, consequence of ending the water diversions was the onset of a period of "meromixis" in Mono Lake.[10] In the time prior to this, Mono Lake was typically "monomictic"; which means that at least once each year the deeper waters and the shallower waters of the lake mixed thoroughly, thus bringing oxygen and other nutrients to the deep waters. In meromictic lakes, the deeper waters do not undergo this mixing; the deeper layers are more saline than the water near the surface, and are typically nearly devoid of oxygen. As a result, becoming meromictic greatly changes a lake's ecology.
Mono Lake has experienced meromictic periods in the past; this most recent episode of meromixis, brought on by the end of the water diversions, commenced in 1994 and had ended by 2004.[11]
Ecology
The hypersalinity and high alkalinity (pH=10 or equivalent to 4 milligrams of NaOH per liter of water) of the lake, means that no fish are native to the lake.[12] An attempt by the California Department of Fish and Game to stock the lake failed. The lake is famous for the Mono Lake brine shrimp, Artemia monica, a tiny species of brine shrimp, no bigger than a thumbnail, that are found nowhere else on earth. During the warmer summer months, an estimated 4-6 trillion brine shrimp inhabit the lake. The brine shrimp feed on microscopic planktonic algae which reproduce rapidly during winter and early spring after winter runoff brings nutrients to the surface layer of water. By March the lake is "as green as pea soup" with photosynthesizing algae.[13] Brine shrimp have no food value for humans, but are a staple for birds of the region. Also an important food source, alkali flies (Ephydra hians) live along the shores of the lake and walk underwater encased in small air bubbles to graze and to lay eggs. The whole food chain of the lake is based on the high population of single-celled algae present in the warm shallow waters.
Mono Lake is a vital resting and eating stop for migratory shorebirds and has been recognized as a site of international importance by the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network.[14] Nearly 2,000,000 waterbirds, including 35 species of shorebirds, use Mono Lake to rest and eat for at least part of the year. Some shorebirds that depend on the resources of Mono Lake include American avocets, killdeer and sandpipers. Over 1.5 million eared grebes and phalaropes use Mono Lake during their long migrations.
Late every summer tens of thousands of Wilson's phalaropes and red-necked phalaropes arrive from their nesting grounds, and feed until they continue their migration to South America or the tropical oceans respectively.[1]
In addition to migratory birds, a few species spend several months to nest at Mono Lake. Mono Lake is the second largest nesting population of California gulls, second only to the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Since abandoning the landbridged Negit Island in the late 1970s, California gulls have moved to some nearby islets and have established new, if less protected, nesting sites. Cornell University and Point Reyes Bird Observatory have continued the study of nesting populations on Mono Lake that was begun over 20 years ago. Snowy plovers also arrive at Mono Lake each spring to nest along the remote eastern shores.
Arsenic-based life
Dr. Felisa Wolfe-Simon of the US Geological Survey in Menlo Park, California, has been studying possible arsenic based lifeforms at the lake, sampling the mud, reducing phosphorus levels, and hoping to show that there is a different form of life propagating in the arsenic-rich waters.[15]
Fauna
- Alkali fly (Ephydra hians)
- Brine shrimp (Artemia monica)
- California Gull (Larus californicus)
Native American history
The early indigenous people of Mono Lake were called the Kutzadika'a, who were the Native American band of Northern Paiutes.[16] They spoke the Northern Paiute language.[17] The Kutzadika'a foraged alkali fly larvae, called kutsavi in their language.[18] Mono Lake was also referred to as Teniega Bah. The origin of the name "Kutzadika'a" is uncertain but could be a Yokut Native American term for "fly eater".
During early contact the first known Mono Lake Paiute chief was Captain John. He was also referred to by the Paiute names of Shibana or Poko Tucket. Captain John was the son of a Northern Paiute named 'older Captain John.'
The Mono tribe has two bands: Eastern and Western. The Eastern Mono joined the Western Mono bands' villages annually at Hetch Hetchy Valley, Yosemite Valley, and along the Merced River to gather acorns, different plant species, and to trade. The Western Mono traditionally lived in the south-central Sierra Nevada foothills, including Historical Yosemite Valley.[19]
Present day Mono Reservations are currently located in Big Pine, Bishop, and several in Fresno County, California.
Cultural history
Mark Twain's Roughing It, published in 1872, provides a humorous and informative early description of Mono Lake in its natural condition in the 1860s.[20][21] Twain found the lake to be a "lifeless, treeless, hideous desert... the loneliest place on earth."[6]
The general appearance of the lake and surrounding mountains circa 1973 can also be seen in the Clint Eastwood film High Plains Drifter.
The Diver, a photo taken by Storm Thorgerson for Pink Floyd's album Wish You Were Here, features what appears to be a man diving into a lake, creating no ripples. The photo was taken at Mono Lake, and the tufa towers are a prominent part of the landscape. The effect was actually created when the diver performed a handstand underwater until the ripples dissipated.
The band Cinderella filmed the iconic power ballad Don't Know What You Got (Till It's Gone) at Mono Lake.
The volcano scene from the award-winning 1953 film Fair Wind to Java[22] was shot at Mono Lake. Today the remnants of the volcano host California gull researchers on their visits to the island.[23]
Monolake is also a Berlin minimal techno artist, named after the location.
Notes
- ^ The Mendocino Triple Junction moved north after this time and the subduction zone immediately west of the Mono area was replaced by the San Andreas Fault.
References
- ^ a b "Birds of the Basin: the Migratory Millions of Mono". Mono Lake Committee. Archived from the original on 2007-02-11. Retrieved 2007-05-12.
- ^ Carle, David (2004). Introduction to Water in California. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520240863.
- ^ Tierney 2000, p. 44
- ^ a b Tierney 2000, p. 45
- ^ Tierney 2000, p. 46
- ^ a b Harris 2005, p. 61
- ^ a b c "History of the Mono Lake Committee". Mono Lake Committee. Retrieved 2009-01-25. [dead link]
- ^ "Monthly Lake Levels". Mono Lake Committee. Retrieved 2004.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help) - ^ "Mono Lake FAQ". Mono Lake Committee. Retrieved 2007-05-12.
- ^ Jellison, R. (1998). "The onset of meromixis in Mono Lake: unintended consequences of reducing water diversions" (PDF). Limnology and Oceanograph. 3 (- No. 4): 704–711. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Jellison, R. (2003). "Weakening and near-breakdown of meromixis in Mono Lake" (PDF). unpublished; online version. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Living in an Alkaline Environment". Microbial Life Education Resources. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- ^ "Mono Lake". Ecoscenario. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
- ^ "Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network". Retrieved 2008-01-19.
- ^ Could the Mono Lake arsenic prove there is a shadow biosphere?, The Times, 4 March 2010, accessed 6 March 2010
- ^ "Kutzadika'a People: Living in Harmony with the Mono Basin". Mono Lake Committee. Retrieved 31 August 2010. [dead link]
- ^ "California Indians and Their Reservations: K". SDSU Library and Information Access. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
- ^ Dave Gracer. "A Tale of Kutsavi". Small Stock Foods.
- ^ "California Indians and Their Reservations". SDSU Library and Information Access.
{{cite web}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Missing or empty|url=(help); Text "url-http://infodome.sdsu.edu/research/guides/calindians/calinddictmp.shtml#monowest" ignored (help) - ^ Twain, Mark. "chapter 38". Roughing It. University of Virginia Library: Electronic Text Center. ISBN 0195159799.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); External link in|chapterurl=|chapterurl=ignored (|chapter-url=suggested) (help) - ^ Twain, Mark. "chapter 39". Roughing It. University of Virginia Library: Electronic Text Center. ISBN 0195159799.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); External link in|chapterurl=|chapterurl=ignored (|chapter-url=suggested) (help) - ^ Fair Wind to Java, IMDB
- ^ Banding California Gulls at Mono Lake, Mary Malec, 20 July 2009, accessed 6 March 2010
Further reading
- Miller, C.D. (1982). "Potential hazards from future volcanic eruptions in the Long Valley-Mono Lake area, east-central California and southwest Nevada : a preliminary assessment". U.S. Geological Survey Circular 877. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - Morgan, James (2009-02-16). "Alien life 'may exist among us': Mono Lake in the US is home to arsenic-fuelled microbes". BBC NEWS – Science & Environment. Retrieved 2009-02-22.
- Tierney, Timothy (2000). Geology of the Mono Basin (revised ed.). Lee Vining, California: Kutsavi Press, Mono Lake Committee. ISBN 0-939716-08-9.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
External links
- Mono Lake Area Visitor Information
- Mono Lake Tufa State Nature Reserve
- Mono Lake website
- Mono Lake Visitor Guide
- "World Lake Database entry for Mono Lake". Archived from the original on 2007-11-02. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
- Ecoscenario: Mono Lake - with photos
- Joe Dorward's website with a panoramic view of Mono Lake from Conway Summit
- Landsat image of Mono Lake