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:'''''Common names''': Russell's viper,<ref name="Mal03">Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G. 2003. True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Krieger Publishing Company. 359 pp. ISBN 0-89464-877-2.</ref><ref name="NRDB-S">{{NRDB species|genus=Daboia|species=russelii|date=2 August|year=2007}}</ref> chain viper,<ref name="WOP">[http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/ReptilesofPakistan/russellsviper.htm Russell's or Chain Viper] at [http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/ Wildlife of Pakistan]. Retrieved 20 October 2006.</ref><ref name="SI">[http://www.siam-info.de/english/snakes_poisonous.html Snakes of Thailand] at [http://www.siam-info.de/ Siam-Info]. Retrieved 20 October 2006.</ref> Indian Russell's viper,<ref name="VRO">[http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/311 Captive Care of the Russell's Viper] at [http://www.venomousreptiles.org/ VenomousReptiles.org]. Retrieved 14 March 2007. {{Wayback|url=http://www.venomousreptiles.org/|date =20070315074523|bot=DASHBot}}</ref><ref name="Som07">Somaweera A. 2007. Checklist of the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. [http://www.pdn.ac.lk/socs/zaup/reptiles/images/snake1/snakes_of_sri_lanka.pdf PDF] at [http://www.pdn.ac.lk/socs/zaup/reptiles/ Sri Lanka Reptile]. Retrieved 14 March 2007.</ref> ([[Daboia#Common names|more]]).''
:'''''Common names''': Russell's viper,<ref name="Mal03">Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G. 2003. True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Krieger Publishing Company. 359 pp. ISBN 0-89464-877-2.</ref><ref name="NRDB-S">{{NRDB species|genus=Daboia|species=russelii|date=2 August|year=2007}}</ref> chain viper,<ref name="WOP">[http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/ReptilesofPakistan/russellsviper.htm Russell's or Chain Viper] at [http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/ Wildlife of Pakistan]. Retrieved 20 October 2006.</ref><ref name="SI">[http://www.siam-info.de/english/snakes_poisonous.html Snakes of Thailand] at [http://www.siam-info.de/ Siam-Info]. Retrieved 20 October 2006.</ref> Indian Russell's viper,<ref name="VRO">[http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/311 Captive Care of the Russell's Viper] at [http://www.venomousreptiles.org/ VenomousReptiles.org]. Retrieved 14 March 2007. {{Wayback|url=http://www.venomousreptiles.org/|date =20070315074523|bot=DASHBot}}</ref><ref name="Som07">Somaweera A. 2007. Checklist of the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. [http://www.pdn.ac.lk/socs/zaup/reptiles/images/snake1/snakes_of_sri_lanka.pdf PDF] at [http://www.pdn.ac.lk/socs/zaup/reptiles/ Sri Lanka Reptile]. Retrieved 14 March 2007.</ref> ([[Daboia#Common names|more]]).''
'''''Daboia''''' is a [[monotypic]] [[genus]]<ref name="ITIS-G">{{ITIS |id=634422 |taxon=''Daboia'' |accessdate=31 July 2006}}</ref> created for a [[venomous snake|venomous]] [[Viperinae|viper]] [[species]], ''D. russelii'', which is found in [[Asia]] throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]], much of [[Southeast Asia]], southern [[China]] and [[Taiwan]].<ref name="McD99"/> It is a member of the [[Big Four (Indian snakes)|big four]] venomous snakes in [[India]].<ref name="Whi89">Whitaker Z. 1989. Snakeman: The Story of a Naturalist. The India Magazine Books. 184 pp. ASIN B0007BR65Y.</ref> It is one of the species which are responsible for causing the most snakebite cases in the world. The species was named in honor of Dr. [[Patrick Russell (herpetologist)|Patrick Russell]] (1726–1805), who had earlier described this animal, and the genus after the [[Hindi]] name for it, which means ''"that lies hid"'', or ''"the lurker."''<ref name="COED">Oxford. 1991. The Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Second Edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-861258-3.</ref> Two [[subspecies]] are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.
'''''Daboia''''' is a [[monotypic]] [[genus]]<ref name="ITIS-G">{{ITIS |id=634422 |taxon=''Daboia'' |accessdate=31 July 2006}}</ref> created for a [[venomous snake|venomous]] [[Viperinae|viper]] [[species]], ''D. russelii'', which is found in [[Asia]] throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]], much of [[Southeast Asia]], southern [[China]] and [[Taiwan]].<ref name="McD99"/> It is a member of the [[Big Four (Indian snakes)|big four]] venomous snakes in [[India]].<ref name="Whi89">Whitaker Z. 1989. Snakeman: The Story of a Naturalist. The India Magazine Books. 184 pp. ASIN B0007BR65Y.</ref> It is one of the species which are responsible for causing the most snakebite cases and deaths in the world. The species was named in honor of Dr. [[Patrick Russell (herpetologist)|Patrick Russell]] (1726–1805), who had earlier described this animal, and the genus after the [[Hindi]] name for it, which means ''"that lies hid"'', or ''"the lurker."''<ref name="COED">Oxford. 1991. The Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Second Edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-861258-3.</ref> Two [[subspecies]] are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.


== Description ==
== Description ==

Revision as of 07:03, 23 November 2010

Russell's viper
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Subphylum:
Vertebrata
Class:
Reptilia
Order:
Squamata
Suborder:
Serpentes
Family:
Viperidae
Subfamily:
Viperinae
Genus:
Daboia

Gray, 1842
Species:
D. russelii
Binomial name
Daboia russelii
(Shaw & Nodder, 1797)
Synonyms
  • Daboia – Gray, 1840 (nomen nudum)
  • Daboia – Gray, 1842
  • Chersophis – Fitzinger, 1843
  • Daboya – Hattori, 1913[1]
  • Coluber russelii – Shaw & Nodder, 1797
  • Coluber Russelii – Shaw, 1802
  • Coluber Daboie – Latreille In Sonnini & Latreille, 1801
  • Coluber trinoculus – Schneider In Bechstein, 1802
  • Vipera daboya – Daudin, 1803
  • Vipera elegans – Daudin, 1803
  • Coluber triseriatus – Hermann, 1804
  • [Vipera (Echidna)] elegans – Merrem, 1820
  • [Vipera (Echidna)] Daboya – Merrem, 1820
  • Vipera Daboya – Gray, 1831
  • Vipera Russelii – Gray, 1831
  • Vipera elegans – Schlegel, 1837
  • Daboia elegans – Gray, 1842
  • Vipera Daboya – Gray, 1842
  • Daboia Russelii – Gray, 1842
  • Daboia pulchella – Gray, 1842
  • Vipera (Chersophis) elegans – Fitzinger, 1843
  • Daboia Russellii – Gray, 1849
  • Vipera russellii – Jerdon, 1854
  • V[ipera]. (Echidna) elegans – Jan, 1863
  • Daboia russellii – Günther, 1864
  • Echidna russellii – Steindachner, 1869
  • Vipera Daboia Russellii – Higgins, 1873
  • Coluber russellii – Fayrer, 1874
  • Vipera (Daboia) Russellii – Müller, 1890
  • Vipera russellii – Boulenger, 1896
  • Vipera russellii – Wall, 1907
  • V[ipera]. l[ebetina]. russellii – Schwarz, 1936
  • Vipera russelli pulchella – Deraniyagala, 1945
  • Vipera russelli nordicus – Deraniyagala, 1945
  • Daboia russelli – Deraniyagala, 1945
  • Vipera russelli – Loveridge, 1946
  • Vipera russelii – Klemmer, 1963
  • Vipera russelii russelii – Klemmer, 1963
  • Daboia (Daboia) russelli russelli- Obst, 1983
  • Daboia (Daboia) russelli pulchella- Obst, 1983
  • Daboia russelli – Golay et al., 1993
  • Vipera ruselli – Golay et al., 1993
  • Vipera russelii nordicus – Golay et al., 1993
  • Daboia russelli russelli – Golay et al., 1993[1]
Common names: Russell's viper,[2][3] chain viper,[4][5] Indian Russell's viper,[6][7] (more).

Daboia is a monotypic genus[8] created for a venomous viper species, D. russelii, which is found in Asia throughout the Indian subcontinent, much of Southeast Asia, southern China and Taiwan.[1] It is a member of the big four venomous snakes in India.[9] It is one of the species which are responsible for causing the most snakebite cases and deaths in the world. The species was named in honor of Dr. Patrick Russell (1726–1805), who had earlier described this animal, and the genus after the Hindi name for it, which means "that lies hid", or "the lurker."[10] Two subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.

Description

This snake grows to a maximum length of 166 cm (5.5 ft). The average length is about 120 cm (4 ft) on the mainland, although island populations do not attain this size.[2] It is more slenderly built than most other vipers.[11] Ditmars (1937) reported the following dimensions for a "fair sized adult specimen":[12]

Total length 4 ft., 1 inch 124 cm
Length of tail 7 inches 18 cm
Girth 6 inches 15 cm
Width of head 2 inches 5 cm
Length of head 2 inches 5 cm


The head is flattened, triangular and distinct from the neck. The snout is blunt, rounded and raised. The nostrils are large, in the middle of a large, single nasal scale. The lower edge of the nasal touches the nasorostral. The supranasal has a strong crescent shape and separates the nasal from the nasorostral anteriorly. The rostral is as broad as it is high.[2]

The crown of the head is covered with irregular, strongly fragmented scales. The supraocular scales are narrow, single, and separated by 6–9 scales across the head. The eyes are large, flecked with yellow or gold, and each is surrounded by 10–15 circumorbital scales. There are 10–12 supralabials, the 4th and 5th of which are significantly larger. The eye is separated from the supralabials by 3–4 rows of suboculars. There are two pairs of chin shields, the front pair of which are notably enlarged. The two maxillary bones support at least two and at the most five or six pairs of fangs at a time: the first are active and the rest replacements.[2] The fangs attain a length of 16 mm in the average specimen.[13]

The body is stout, the cross-section of which is rounded to cylindrical. The dorsal scales are strongly keeled; only the lower row is smooth. Mid-body, the dorsal scales number 27–33. The ventral scales number 153–180. The anal plate is not divided. The tail is short — about 14% of the total body length — with the paired subcaudals numbering 41–68.[2]

The color pattern consists of a deep yellow, tan or brown ground color, with three series of dark brown spots that run the length of its body. Each of these spots has a black ring around it, the outer border of which is intensified with a rim of white or yellow. The dorsal spots, which usually number 23–30, may grow together, while the side spots may break apart. The head has a pair of distinct dark patches, one on each temple, together with a pinkish, salmon or brownish V or X pattern that forms an apex towards the snout. Behind the eye, there is a dark streak, outlined in white, pink or buff. The venter is white, whitish, yellowish or pinkish, often with an irregular scattering of dark spots.[2]

Common names

Geographic range

Found in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, China (Guangxi, Guangdong), Taiwan and Indonesia (Endeh, Flores, east Java, Komodo, Lomblen Islands). The type locality is listed as "India". More specifically, this would be the Coromandel Coast, by inference of Russell (1796).[1]

Brown (1973) mentions that it can also found in Vietnam, Laos and on the Indonesian island of Sumatra.[15] Ditmars (1937) reportedly received a specimen from Sumatra as well.[12] However, the distribution of this species in the Indonesian archipelago is still being elucidated.[20]

Within its range it can be very common in some areas, but scarce in others.[11] In India, is abundant in Punjab, very common along the West Coast and its hills, in southern India and up to Bengal. It is uncommon to rare in the Ganges valley, northern Bengal and Assam. It is prevalent in Myanmar.[13]

Habitat

It is not restricted to any particular habitat, but does tend to avoid dense forests. The snake is mostly found in open, grassy or bushy areas, but may also be found in second growth forests (scrub jungles), on forested plantations and farmland. They are most common in plains, coastal lowlands and hills of suitable habitat. Generally not found at altitude, but has been reported as far up as 2300–3000 m. Humid environments, such as marshes, swamps and rain forests, are avoided.[2]

This species is often found in highly urbanized areas and settlements in the countryside, the attraction being the rodents commensal with man.[13] As a result, those working outside in these areas are most at risk of being bitten. It should be noted, however, that D. russelii does not associate as closely with human habitation as Naja and Bungarus (cobras and kraits).[2]

The Russel's Viper in Pune, India.

Behavior

Terrestrial and active primarily as a nocturnal forager. However, during cool weather it will alter its behavior and become more active during the day.[2]

Adults are reported to be persistently slow and sluggish unless pushed beyond a certain limit, after which they become fierce and aggressive. Juveniles, on the other hand, are generally more active and will bite with minimal provocation.[2]

When threatened they form a series of S-loops, raise the first third of the body and produce a hiss that is supposedly louder than that of any other snake. When striking from this position, they can exert so much force that even a large individual can lift most of its body off the ground in the process.[2] These snakes are strong and agile and react violently to being picked up.[9] The bite may be a snap, or, they may hang on for many seconds.[13]

Although this genus does not have the heat-sensitive pit organs common to the Crotalinae, it is one of a number of viperines that are apparently able to react to thermal cues, further supporting the notion that they too possess a heat-sensitive organ.[21][22] The identity of this sensor is not certain, but the nerve endings in the supranasal sac of these snakes resemble those found in other heat-sensitive organs.[23]

Preying

It feeds primarily on rodents, especially murid species. However, they will eat just about anything, including rats, mice, shrews, squirrels, land crabs, scorpions and other arthropods. Juveniles are crepuscular, feeding on lizards and foraging actively. As they grow and become adults, they begin to specialize in rodents. Indeed, the presence of rodents is the main reason they are attracted to human habitation.[2]

Juveniles are known to be cannibalistic.[13]

Venom

The quantity of venom produced by individual specimens is considerable. Reported venom yields for adult specimens range from 130–250 mg to 150–250 mg to 21–268 mg. For 13 juveniles with an average length of 79 cm, the average venom yield was 8–79 mg (mean 45 mg).[2]

The LD50 in mice, which is used as a general indicator of snake venom toxicity, is as follows: 0.08–0.31 μg/g intravenous, 0.40 μg/kg intraperitoneal, 0.75-1.6 mg/kg subcutaneous.[24] For most humans, a lethal dose is 40–70 mg. In general, the toxicity depends on a combination of five different venom fractions, each of which is less toxic when tested separately. Venom toxicity also varies within populations and over time.[2]

Envenomation symptoms begin with pain at the site of the bite, immediately followed by swelling of the affected extremity. Bleeding is a common symptom, especially from the gums, and sputum may show signs of blood within 20 minutes post-bite. There is a drop in blood pressure and the heart rate falls. Blistering occurs at the site of the bite, developing along the affected limb in severe cases. Necrosis is usually superficial and limited to the muscles near the bite, but may be severe in extreme cases. Vomiting and facial swelling occurs in about one-third of all cases.[2]

Severe pain may last for 2–4 weeks. Locally, it may persist depending on the level of tissue damage. Often, local swelling peaks within 48–72 hours, involving both the affected limb and the trunk. If swelling up to the trunk occurs within 1–2 hours, massive envenomation is likely. Discoloration may occur throughout the swollen area as red blood cells and plasma leak into muscle tissue.[16] Death from septicaemia, respiratory or cardiac failure may occur 1 to 14 days post-bite or even later.[13]

Because this venom is so effective at inducing thrombosis, it has been incorporated into an in vitro diagnostic test for blood clotting that is widely used in hospital laboratories. This test is often referred to as Dilute Russell's viper venom time (dRVVT). The coagulant in the venom directly activates factor X, which turns prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of factor V and phospholipid. The venom is diluted to give a clotting time of 23 to 27 seconds and the phospholipid is reduced to make the test extremely sensitive to phospholipid. The dRVVT test is more sensitive than the aPTT test for the detection of lupus anticoagulant (an autoimmune disorder), because it is not influenced by deficiencies in clotting factors VIII, IX or XI.[25]

In India, the Haffkine Institute prepares a polyvalent antivenin that is used to treat bites from this species.[13]

Reproduction

This species is ovoviviparous.[11] Mating generally occurs early in the year, although gravid females may be found at any time. The gestation period is more than six months. Young are produced from May to November, but mostly in June and July. It is a prolific breeder. Litters of 20–40 are common,[2] although there may be fewer offspring and as little as one.[13] The reported maximum is 65 in a single litter. At birth, juveniles are 215–260 mm in length. The minimum length for a gravid female is about 100 cm. It seems that sexual maturity is achieved in 2–3 years. In one case, it took a specimen nearly 4.5 hours to produce 11 young.[2]

Subspecies

Subspecies[1] Taxon author[1] Common name Geographic range[2]
D. r. russelii (Shaw, 1797) Indian Russell's viper[26] Across the Indian subcontinent through Pakistan and Bangladesh to Sri Lanka.
D. r. siamensis (M.A. Smith, 1917) Eastern Russell's viper[27] From Myanmar through Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia and southern China. Also found in Taiwan.[1]

Taxonomy

Using morphological and mitochondrial DNA data, Thorpe et al. (2007)[28] provided evidence that the eastern subspecies should be considered a separate species, Daboia siamensis

A number of other subspecies may be encountered in literature,[2] including:

  • D. r. formosensis, Maki 1931 – found in Taiwan (considered a synonym of D. r. siamensis).
  • D. r. limitis, Mertens 1927 – found in Indonesia (considered a synonym of D. r. siamensis).
  • D. r. pulchella, Gray 1842 – found in Sri Lanka (considered a synonym of D. r. russelii).
  • D. r. nordicus, Deraniyagala 1945 – found in northern India (considered a synonym of D. r. russelii).


The correct spelling of the species, D. russelii has been, and still is, a matter of debate. Shaw & Nodder (1797), in their account of the species Coluber russelii, named it after Dr. Patrick Russell, but apparently misspelled his name, using only one "L" instead of two. Russell (1727–1805) was the author of An Account of Indian Serpents (1796) and A Continuation of an Account of Indian Serpents (1801). McDiarmid et al. (1999) are among those who favor the original misspelled spelling, citing Article 32c (ii) of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Others, such as Zhao and Adler (1993) favor russellii.[1]

In the future, more species may be added to Daboia. Obst (1983) reviewed the genus and suggested that it be extended to include Macrovipera lebetina, Vipera palaestinae and V. xanthina. Groombridge (1980, 1986) united V. palaestinae and Daboia as a clade based on a number of shared apomorphies, including snout shape and head color pattern. Lenk et al. (2001) found support for this idea based on molecular evidence, suggesting that Daboia not only include V. palaestinae, but also M. mauritanica and M. deserti.[2]

Mimicry

The rough-scaled sand boa, Gongylophis conicus, possibly mimics the appearance of D. russelii.

Some herpetologists believe that, because D. russelii is so successful as a species and has such a fearful reputation within its natural environment, another snake has even come to mimic its appearance. Superficially, the rough-scaled sand boa, Gongylophis conicus, has a color pattern that often looks a lot like that of D. russelii, even though it is completely harmless.[2][12]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. 1999. Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, vol. 1. Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. ISBN 1-893777-00-6 (series). ISBN 1-893777-01-4 (volume).
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Mallow D, Ludwig D, Nilson G. 2003. True Vipers: Natural History and Toxinology of Old World Vipers. Krieger Publishing Company. 359 pp. ISBN 0-89464-877-2.
  3. ^ Daboia russelii at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 2 August 2007.
  4. ^ a b Russell's or Chain Viper at Wildlife of Pakistan. Retrieved 20 October 2006.
  5. ^ a b Snakes of Thailand at Siam-Info. Retrieved 20 October 2006.
  6. ^ a b Captive Care of the Russell's Viper at VenomousReptiles.org. Retrieved 14 March 2007. Archived 2007-03-15 at the Wayback Machine
  7. ^ a b Somaweera A. 2007. Checklist of the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. PDF at Sri Lanka Reptile. Retrieved 14 March 2007.
  8. ^ "Daboia". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 31 July 2006.
  9. ^ a b Whitaker Z. 1989. Snakeman: The Story of a Naturalist. The India Magazine Books. 184 pp. ASIN B0007BR65Y.
  10. ^ Oxford. 1991. The Compact Oxford English Dictionary. Second Edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-861258-3.
  11. ^ a b c Stidworthy J. 1974. Snakes of the world. Grosset & Dunlap Inc. ISBN 0-448-11856-4.
  12. ^ a b c d Ditmars RL. 1937. Reptiles of the World: The Crocodilians, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The McMillan Company. 321 pp.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Daniels JC. 2002. Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-566099-4. pp. 252. Pages 148–151.
  14. ^ a b Mehrtens JM. 1987. Living Snakes of the World in Color. New York: Sterling Publishers. 480 pp. ISBN 0-8069-6460-X.
  15. ^ a b Brown JH. 1973. Toxicology and Pharmacology of Venoms from Poisonous Snakes. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas. 184 pp. LCCCN 73-229. ISBN 0-398-02808-7.
  16. ^ a b U.S. Navy. 1991. Poisonous Snakes of the World. US Govt. New York: Dover Publications Inc. 203 pp. ISBN 0-486-26629-X.
  17. ^ Daboia at MSN Encarta. Accessed 26 September 2006. Archived 2009-10-31. Archived 2006-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ Murthy, TSN. 1990. Illustrated guide to the snakes of the Western Ghats, India. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. 76 pp. ASIN B0006F2P5C.
  19. ^ Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society – Checklists of the Snakes of Sri Lanka. Retrieved 2 August 2007. Archived 2007-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ^ Belt P, Warrell DA, Malhotra A, Wüster W, Thorpe RS. 1997. Russell's viper in Indonesia: snakebite and systematics. In R.S. Thorpe, W. Wüster & A. Malhotra (Eds.), Venomous Snakes: Ecology, Evolution and Snakebite. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London, No. 70:219–234.
  21. ^ Krochmal AR, Bakken GS (2003). "Thermoregulation is the pits: use of thermal radiation for retreat site selection by rattlesnakes". J. Exp. Biol. 206 (Pt 15): 2539–45. doi:10.1242/jeb.00471. PMID 12819261. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  22. ^ Krochmal AR, Bakken GS, LaDuc TJ (2004). "Heat in evolution's kitchen: evolutionary perspectives on the functions and origin of the facial pit of pitvipers (Viperidae: Crotalinae)". J. Exp. Biol. 207 (Pt 24): 4231–8. doi:10.1242/jeb.01278. PMID 15531644.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ York DS, Silver TM, Smith AA (1998). "Innervation of the supranasal sac of the puff adder" (abstract). Anat. Rec. 251 (2): 221–5. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199806)251:2<221::AID-AR10>3.0.CO;2-Q. PMID 9624452.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Snake of medical importance. Venom and research group.
  25. ^ Antiphospholipid Syndrome at SpecialtyLaboratories. Retrieved 27 September 2006.
  26. ^ Checklist of Indian Snakes with English Common Names Snakes-Checklist.pdf[dead link] at University of Texas. Retrieved 22 October 2006.
  27. ^ Daboia russelii siamensis at Munich AntiVenom INdex (MAVIN). Retrieved 23 October 2006.
  28. ^ Thorpe RS, Pook CE, Malhotra A (2007). "Phylogeography of the Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) complex in relation to variation in the colour pattern and symptoms of envenoming". Herpetological Journal. 17: 209–18.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Further reading

  • Hawgood BJ (1994). "The life and viper of Dr Patrick Russell MD FRS (1727–1805): physician and naturalist". Toxicon. 32 (11): 1295–304. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(94)90402-2. PMID 7886689. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Adler K, Smith HM, Prince SH, David P, Chiszar D (2000). "Russell's Viper: Daboia russelii not Daboia russellii, due to Classical Latin rules". Hamadryad. 25 (2): 83–5.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Breidenbach CH (1990). "Thermal cues influence strikes in pitless vipers". Journal of Herpetology. 24 (4). Society for the Study of Reptiles and Amphibians: 448–50. doi:10.2307/1565074.
  • Cox M. 1991. The Snakes of Thailand and Their Husbandry. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. 526 pp. ISBN 0-89464-437-8.
  • Daniels, J.C. Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. (2002). BNHS. Oxford University Press. Mumbai. viii+238pp.
  • Dimitrov GD, Kankonkar RC (1968). "Fractionation of Vipera russelli venom by gel filtration. I. Venom composition and relative fraction function". Toxicon. 5 (3): 213–21. PMID 5640304. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Dowling HG (1993). "The name of Russel's viper". Amphibia-Reptilia. 14: 320. doi:10.1163/156853893X00543.
  • Gharpurey K. 1962. Snakes of India and Pakistan. Bombay, India: Popular Prakishan. 79 pp.
  • Groombridge B. 1980. A phyletic analysis of viperine snakes. Ph-D thesis. City of London: Polytechnic College. 250 pp.
  • Groombridge B. 1986. Phyletic relationships among viperine snakes. In: Proceedings of the third European herpetological meeting; 1985 July 5–11; Charles University, Prague. pp 11–17.
  • Jena I, Sarangi A. 1993. Snakes of Medical Importance and Snake-bite Treatment. New Delhi: SB Nangia, Ashish Publishing House. 293 pp.
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