Salt: Difference between revisions
m r2.7.2+) (Robot: Adding lez:Кьел; modifying nah:Iztātl |
Songriter en (talk | contribs) |
||
Line 183: | Line 183: | ||
In 2002, total world production (of sodium chloride in general, not just table salt) was estimated at 210 million [[tonne]]s, the top five producers being the United States (40.3 million tonnes), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5), and Canada (12.3).<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1002/0471238961.1915040902051820.a01.pub2|title=Sodium Chloride ''in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology''|year=2005|last1=Feldman|first1=Susan R.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> |
In 2002, total world production (of sodium chloride in general, not just table salt) was estimated at 210 million [[tonne]]s, the top five producers being the United States (40.3 million tonnes), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5), and Canada (12.3).<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1002/0471238961.1915040902051820.a01.pub2|title=Sodium Chloride ''in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology''|year=2005|last1=Feldman|first1=Susan R.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> |
||
In 2010 European Union totally produced 55.3 mln tons. Germany still dominates EU salt market both in production and consumption. The country manufactures and consumes 38% and 35% of the total EU salt respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://marketpublishers.com/lists/13376/news.html|title=EU Demand for Salt Is Expanding}}</ref> |
|||
==Non-dietary uses and occurrences== |
==Non-dietary uses and occurrences== |
Revision as of 13:32, 4 April 2012
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Halit-Kristalle.jpg/300px-Halit-Kristalle.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Image-Zigong_Salt.jpg/300px-Image-Zigong_Salt.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Salt_Works_India.jpg/300px-Salt_Works_India.jpg)
Salt, also known as table salt, or rock salt, is a mineral that is composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of ionic salts. It is essential for animal life in small quantities, but is harmful to animals and plants in excess. Salt is one of the oldest, most ubiquitous food seasonings and salting is an important method of food preservation. The taste of salt (saltiness) is one of the basic human tastes.
Salt for human consumption is produced in different forms: unrefined salt (such as sea salt), refined salt (table salt), and iodized salt. It is a crystalline solid, white, pale pink or light gray in color, normally obtained from sea water or rock deposits. Edible rock salts may be slightly grayish in color because of mineral content.
Chloride and sodium ions, the two major components of salt, are needed by all known living creatures in small quantities. Salt is involved in regulating the water content (fluid balance) of the body. The sodium ion itself is used for electrical signaling in the nervous system.[1] Because of its importance to survival, salt has often been considered a valuable commodity during human history. However, as salt consumption has increased during modern times, scientists have become aware of the health risks associated with too much salt intake, including high blood pressure. Therefore health authorities have recommended limitations of dietary sodium.[2][3][4][5][6] The United States Department of Health and Human Services recommends that individuals consume no more than 1500–2300 mg of sodium (3750–5750 mg of salt) per day depending on age.[7]
History
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Salzproduktion-Halle.jpg/220px-Salzproduktion-Halle.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Salt_Farmers_-_Pak_Thale-edit1.jpg/220px-Salt_Farmers_-_Pak_Thale-edit1.jpg)
While people have used canning and artificial refrigeration to preserve food for the last hundred years or so, salt has been the best-known food preservative, especially for meat, for many thousands of years.[8] A very ancient saltworks operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca, Neamţ County, Romania. Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt-laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6050 BC.[9] The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society's population soon after its initial production began.[10] The harvest of salt from the surface of Xiechi Lake near Yuncheng in Shanxi, China dates back to at least 6000 BC, making it one of the oldest verifiable saltworks.[11]: 18–19
Salt was included among funereal offerings found in ancient Egyptian tombs from the third millennium BC, as were salted birds and salt fish.[11]: 38 From about 2800 BC, the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar, glass, and the dye Tyrian purple; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire.[11]: 44
Along the Sahara, the Tuareg maintain routes especially for the transport of salt by Azalai (salt caravans). In 1960, the caravans still transported some 15,000 tons of salt, but this trade has now declined to roughly a third of this figure.[12]
Salzburg, Hallstatt, and Hallein lie on the river Salzach in central Austria, within a radius of no more than 17 kilometres. Salzach literally means "salt water" and Salzburg "salt city", both taking their names from the German word for salt, [Salz] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup (help).
Hallstatt gave its name to the Celtic archaeological culture that began mining for salt in the area in around 800 BC. Around 400 BC, the Hallstatt Celts, who had heretofore mined for salt, began open pan salt making. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries.[8]
The word salary originates from Latin: salarium which referred to the money paid to the Roman Army's soldiers for the purchase of salt.[13][14][15] The word salad literally means "salted," and comes from the ancient Roman practice of salting leaf vegetables.[11]: 64
Mahatma Gandhi led at least 100,000 people on the "Dandi March" or "Salt Satyagraha", in which protesters made their own salt from the sea, which was illegal under British rule, as it avoided paying the "salt tax". This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people, and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist struggle to a national struggle.
Forms of salt
Unrefined salt
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Seasalt.jpg/220px-Seasalt.jpg)
Different natural salts have different mineralities, giving each one a unique flavor. Fleur de sel, a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans, has a unique flavor varying from region to region. In traditional Korean cuisine, so-called "bamboo salt" is prepared by roasting salt[16] in a bamboo container plugged with mud at both ends. This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been shown to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang.[17]
Completely raw sea salt is bitter because of magnesium and calcium compounds, and thus is rarely eaten. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases.[18]
Unrefined sea salts are also commonly used as ingredients in bathing additives and cosmetic products. One example is bath salts, which uses sea salt as its main ingredient and combined with other ingredients is used for its alleged healing and therapeutic effects. [citation needed]
Refined salt
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg/220px-Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg)
Refined salt, which is most widely used presently, is mainly sodium chloride. Food grade salt accounts for only a small part of salt production in industrialized countries (3% in Europe[19]) although worldwide, food uses account for 17.5% of salt production.[20] The majority is sold for industrial use. Salt has great commercial value because it is a necessary ingredient in many manufacturing processes. A few common examples include: the production of pulp and paper, setting dyes in textiles and fabrics, and the making of soaps and detergents.
The manufacture and use of salt is one of the oldest chemical industries.[21] Salt can be obtained by evaporation of sea water, usually in shallow basins warmed by sunlight;[22] salt so obtained was formerly called bay salt, and is now often called sea salt or solar salt. Rock salt deposits are formed by the evaporation of ancient salt lakes,[23] and may be mined conventionally or through the injection of water. Injected water dissolves the salt, and the brine solution can be pumped to the surface where the salt is collected.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Salt_DevilsGC06.jpg/220px-Salt_DevilsGC06.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Salt_crystals_in_death_valley.jpg/220px-Salt_crystals_in_death_valley.jpg)
After the raw salt is obtained, it is refined to purify it and improve its storage and handling characteristics. Purification usually involves recrystallization. In recrystallization, a brine solution is treated with chemicals that precipitate most impurities (largely magnesium and calcium salts).[24] Multiple stages of evaporation are then used to collect pure sodium chloride crystals, which are kiln-dried.
Table salt
In Western cuisines, salt is used in cooking, and also made available to diners in salt shakers on the table.
Table salt is refined salt, which contains about 97% to 99% sodium chloride.[25][26][27] It usually contains substances that make it free-flowing (anticaking agents) such as sodium silicoaluminate or magnesium carbonate. Some people also add a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice,[28] or a saltine cracker[29] in salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up clumps when anticaking agents are not enough. Table salt has a particle density of 2.165 g/cm3, and a bulk density (dry, ASTM D 632 gradation) of about 1.154 g/cm3.[30]
Additives in table salt
Most table salt sold for consumption contains a variety of additives, which address a variety of health concerns, especially in the developing world. The amounts of additives vary widely from country to country.
Iodine and iodide
Iodine-containing compounds are added to table salt. Iodine deficiency affects about two billion people and is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation.[31] The practice began in 1924.[32] Iodized salt is thus table salt mixed with a minute amount of potassium iodide, sodium iodide, or sodium iodate. Iodized salt is used to help reduce the incidence of iodine deficiency in humans. Iodine deficiency commonly leads to thyroid gland problems, specifically endemic goiter, a disease characterized by a swelling of the thyroid gland, usually resulting in a bulbous protrusion on the neck. Iodized table salt has significantly reduced disorders of iodine deficiency in countries where it is used.[33] Iodine is important to prevent the insufficient production of thyroid hormones (hypothyroidism), which can cause goiter, cretinism in children, and myxedema in adults.
The amount of iodine and the specific iodine compound added to salt varies from country to country. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration recommends [21 CFR 101.9 (c)(8)(iv)] 150 micrograms of iodine per day for both men and women. US iodized salt contains 46–77 ppm (parts per million), whereas in the UK the iodine content of iodized salt is recommended to be 10–22 ppm.[34] Today, iodized salt is more common in the United States, Australia and New Zealand than in the United Kingdom.
Fluoride
Especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water, fluoride salts are added to table salt. The practice is more common in some European countries, where water fluoridation is not practiced. In France, 35% of sold table salt contains sodium fluoride.[35]
Anti-caking agents
Sodium ferrocyanide, also known as yellow prussiate of soda, is sometimes added to salt as an anticaking agent. The additive is considered safe for human consumption.[36][37] Such anti-caking agents have been added since at least 1911 when magnesium carbonate was first added to salt to make it flow more freely.[38][39] The safety of sodium ferrocyanide as a food additive was found to be provisionally acceptable by the Committee on Toxicity in 1988.[36] Some other anticaking agents include tricalcium phosphate, calcium or magnesium carbonates, fatty acid salts (acid salts), magnesium oxide, silicon dioxide, calcium silicate, sodium aluminosilicate, and calcium aluminosilicate. Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) permitted the use of aluminum in the latter two compounds.[40]
Iron
In "doubly fortified salt", both iodide and iron salts are added. This additive alleviates iron deficiency anemia, which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 40% of infants in the developing world. A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate.[35]
Other additives
Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is folic acid (vitamin B9), which gives the table salt a yellow color. Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects (NTDs) and anemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries.[35]
In Canada, at least one brand (Windsor Salt) contains inverted sugar syrup.[citation needed]
Salty condiments
In many East Asian cultures, salt is not traditionally used as a condiment.[41] In its place, condiments such as soy sauce, fish sauce and oyster sauce tend to have a high sodium content and fill a similar role to table salt in western cultures. They are most often used for cooking rather than as table condiments.
Health effects
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Salt1.jpg/220px-Salt1.jpg)
Acute effects
Too much or too little salt in the diet can lead to muscle cramps, dizziness, or electrolyte disturbance, which can cause neurological problems, or death.[42] Drinking too much water, with insufficient salt intake, puts a person at risk of water intoxication (hyponatremia). Salt is sometimes used as a health aid, such as in treatment of dysautonomia.[43]
Death can occur by ingestion of large amounts of salt in a short time (about 1 g per kg of body weight).[44] Deaths have also resulted from attempted use of salt solutions as emetics, forced salt intake, and accidental confusion of salt with sugar in child food.[45]
Long-term effects
The effect of salt consumption on long term health outcomes is controversial.[46] Salt reduction appears to have little or no effect on mortality[47] and its effect on morbidity is unknown.[46] Some associations include:
- Stroke and cardiovascular disease.[48]
- High blood pressure: Evidence shows an association between salt intakes and blood pressure among different populations and age range in adults.[49] Reduced salt intake also results in a small reduction in blood pressure.[46]
- Left ventricular hypertrophy (cardiac enlargement): "Evidence suggests that high salt intake causes left ventricular hypertrophy, a strong risk factor for cardiovascular disease, independently of blood pressure effects."[49] "...there is accumulating evidence that high salt intake predicts left ventricular hypertrophy."[50] Excessive salt (sodium) intake, combined with an inadequate intake of water, can cause hypernatremia. It can exacerbate renal disease.[42]
- Edema: A decrease in salt intake has been suggested to treat edema (fluid retention).[42][51]
- Stomach cancer is associated with high levels of sodium, "but the evidence does not generally relate to foods typically consumed in the UK."[52] However, in Japan, salt consumption is higher.[53]
The Cochrane Collaboration found that "a modest and long term reduction in population salt intake [...] would result in a lower population blood pressure, and a reduction in strokes, heart attacks and heart failure. Furthermore, our study is consistent with the fact that the lower the salt intake, the lower the blood pressure."[54] Some isolated cultures, such as the Yanomami in South America, have been found to consume little salt and are still capable of regular activity. This may indicate an adaptation of humans to low levels of sodium that originated in the predominantly vegetarian diet of human primate ancestors.[55]
The risk for disease due to insufficient or excessive salt intake varies because of biochemical individuality. Some have asserted that while the risks of consuming too much salt are real, the risks have been exaggerated for most people, or that the studies done on the consumption of salt can be interpreted in many different ways.[56][57] There have also been recent scientific debates upon whether 'excess' sodium in our diet has any adverse effect at all on healthy individuals and whether the last 50 years of scientific research that strongly correlates salt intake and hypertension might just be a well intentioned misinterpretation of the scientific data. [58][59][60][61] [62]
Pathophysiology
Sodium is one of the primary electrolytes in the body. All four cationic electrolytes (sodium, potassium, magnesium, and calcium) are available in unrefined salt, as are other vital minerals needed for optimal bodily function.
Recommended intake
Recommended intakes of salt are usually expressed in terms of sodium intake. Salt (as sodium chloride) contains 39.3% of sodium by weight.
Country | Description | Sodium intake mg per day |
Salt intake mg per day |
Authority | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
United Kingdom | The Reference Nutrient Intake (RNI) defined for a typical adult | RNI: 1600 | RNI: 4000 | Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) (2003)[63] | However, average adult intake is two and a half times the RNI. SACN states, "The target salt intakes set for adults and children do not represent ideal or optimum consumption levels, but achievable population goals." The Food Safety Authority of Ireland endorses the UK targets.[50] |
Canada | An Adequate Intake (AI) and Upper Limit (UL) recommended for persons aged 9 years or more. | AI: 1200–1500 UL: 2200–2300 |
AI: 3000–3750 UL: 5500–5750 |
Health Canada (2005)[64] | |
Australia and New Zealand | An Adequate Intake (AI) and an Upper Level of intake (UL) defined for adults | AI: 460–920 UL: 2300 |
AI: 1150–2300 UL: 5750 |
NHMRC (2006)[65] | Not able to define a recommended dietary intake (RDI) |
United States | An Upper Limit (UL) defined for adults. A different upper limit defined for the special group comprising people over 51 years of age, African Americans and people with hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease (regardless of age). | UL: 2300 UL for special group: 1500 |
UL: 5750 UL for special group: 3750 |
Department of Agriculture and Department of Health and Human Services (2010)[7][66][67] | The Food and Drug Administration itself does not make a recommendation, but refers readers to the dietary guidelines given by this authority.[68] |
A 2009 meta-analysis found that the sodium consumption of 19,151 individuals from 33 countries fit into the narrow range of 2,700 to 4,900 mg/day. The small range across many cultures, together with animal studies, suggest that sodium intake is tightly controlled by feedback loops in the body, making recommendations to reduce sodium consumption below 2,700 mg/day potentially futile.[69]
Labeling
UK: The Food Standards Agency defines the level of salt in foods as follows: "High is more than 1.5 g salt per 100 g (or 0.6 g sodium). Low is 0.3 g salt or less per 100 g (or 0.1 g sodium). If the amount of salt per 100 g is in between these figures, then that is a medium level of salt." In the UK, foods produced by some supermarkets and manufacturers have ‘traffic light’ colors on the front of the pack: Red (High), Amber (Medium), or Green (Low).[70]
USA: The FDA Food Labeling Guide stipulates whether a food can be labeled as "free." "low," or "reduced/less" in respect of sodium. When other health claims are made about a food (e.g., low in fat, calories, etc.), a disclosure statement is required if the food exceeds 480 mg of sodium per 'serving.'[71]
Campaigns
In 2004, Britain's Food Standards Agency started a public health campaign called "Salt – Watch it", which recommends no more than 6g of salt per day; it features a character called Sid the Slug and was criticised by the Salt Manufacturers Association (SMA).[72] The Advertising Standards Authority did not uphold the SMA complaint in its adjudication.[73] In March 2007, the FSA launched the third phase of their campaign with the slogan "Salt. Is your food full of it?" fronted by comedienne Jenny Eclair.[74]
The University of Tasmania's Menzies Research Institute maintains a website[75] to educate people about the problems of a salt-laden diet.
Consensus Action on Salt and Health (CASH)[76] established in 1996, actively campaigns to raise awareness of the harmful health effects of salt. The 2008 focus includes raising awareness of high levels of salt hidden in sweet foods and marketed towards children.[77]
In January 2010, New York City launched the National Salt Reduction Initiative, modeled after an initiative in the United Kingdom. The campaign calls on food makers to voluntarily reduce the amount of sodium in their foods, from 20% in peanut butter to a 40% reduction in canned vegetables, with an overall goal of reducing sodium in packaged and restaurant foods by 25% by 2015.[78]
A number of major food producers have pledged to reduce the sodium content of their food. Pepsi is developing a “designer salt” that’s slightly more powdery than the salt it regularly uses. The company hopes this new form of salt will cut sodium levels by 25% in its Lay’s potato chips.[79] Nestlé's prepared foods company, which produces frozen meals, announced that it will reduce sodium in its foods by 10% by 2015.[80] General Mills announced that it will reduce the sodium content of 40% of its foods by about 20% by 2015.[81]
Taxation of sodium has been proposed as a method of decreasing sodium intake and thereby improving health in countries like the United States where typical salt consumption is high.[82][83]
The Salt Institute, a salt industry body, is active in promoting the use of salt,[84] and questioning or opposing restrictions on salt intake.[85]
Lowering salt in diet
A low sodium diet reduces intake of sodium by selection of food and potentially by use of salt substitutes. Sea salt has the same sodium content as table salt.[86]
Production
Salt is produced by evaporation of seawater or brine from other sources, such as brine wells and salt lakes, and by mining rock salt, called halite.
In 2002, total world production (of sodium chloride in general, not just table salt) was estimated at 210 million tonnes, the top five producers being the United States (40.3 million tonnes), China (32.9), Germany (17.7), India (14.5), and Canada (12.3).[87]
In 2010 European Union totally produced 55.3 mln tons. Germany still dominates EU salt market both in production and consumption. The country manufactures and consumes 38% and 35% of the total EU salt respectively.[88]
Non-dietary uses and occurrences
Apart from its use in table salt in the diet, sodium chloride is a major industrial chemical. It occurs widely, being the main saline component of the oceans, and plays a role in formation of clouds.
Usage in religion
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Dead_sea_newspaper.jpg/220px-Dead_sea_newspaper.jpg)
In the Hebrew Bible, thirty-five verses mention salt,[89] one of which being the story of Lot's wife, who, according to the legend, was turned into a pillar of salt when she looked back at the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:26) as they were destroyed. When King Abimelech destroyed the city of Shechem, he is said to have "sown salt on it," probably as a curse on anyone who would re-inhabit it. (Judges 9:45) The Book of Job contains the first mention of salt as a condiment. "Can that which is unsavory be eaten without salt? or is there any taste in the white of an egg?" (Job 6:6)
In the Christian New Testament, six verses mention salt. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus referred to his followers as the "salt of the earth". The apostle Paul also encouraged Christians to "let your conversation be always full of grace, seasoned with salt" (Colossians 4:6).
In one of the Hadith recorded in Sunan Ibn Majah, Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said that: "Salt is the master of your food. God sent down four blessings from the sky – fire, water, iron and salt"
Salt is mandatory in the rite of the Tridentine Mass.[90] Salt is used in the third item (which includes an Exorcism) of the Celtic Consecration (cf. Gallican Rite) that is employed in the consecration of a church. Salt may be added to the water "where it is customary" in the Roman Catholic rite of Holy water.
Salt is considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism, and is used in particular religious ceremonies like housewarmings and weddings. In Jainism, devotees offer raw rice and a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion.
In Judaism, it is recommended to have either a salty bread or to add salt to the bread if this bread is unsalted when doing Kiddush for Shabbat. It is customary to spread some salt over the bread or to dip the bread in a little salt when passing the bread around the table after the Kiddush.[91] To preserve the covenant between their people and God, Jews dip the Sabbath bread in salt.[92]
In Wicca, salt is symbolic of the element Earth. It is also believed to cleanse an area of harmful or negative energies. A dish of salt and a dish of water are almost always present on an altar. The salt is mixed with the water to consecrate it, in effect producing holy water. This mixture is used in a wide variety of rituals and ceremonies.
In the native Japanese religion Shinto, salt is used for ritual purification of locations and people (harae, specifically shubatsu), such as in sumo wrestling, and small piles of salt called morijio (盛り塩, pile of salt) or shiobana (塩花, salt flowers) are placed in dishes by the entrance of establishments for the two-fold purposes of warding off evil and attracting patrons.[93]
In Aztec mythology, Huixtocihuatl was a fertility goddess who presided over salt and salt water.
The ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans invoked their gods with offerings of salt and water. Some think this to be the origin of Holy Water in the Christian faith.[92]
See also
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Salt_ship_loading.jpg/400px-Salt_ship_loading.jpg)
- Alberger process
- Black salt (disambiguation)
- Curing (food preservation)
- Health Canada Sodium Working Group
References
- ^ Caldwell, J. H.; Schaller, KL; Lasher, RS; Peles, E; Levinson, SR (2000). "Sodium channel Nav1.6 is localized at nodes of Ranvier, dendrites, and synapses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (10): 5616–5620. doi:10.1073/pnas.090034797. PMC 25877. PMID 10779552.
- ^ "American Heart Association 2010 Dietary Guidelines" (PDF). 2010 Dietary Guidelines. American Heart Association. 23 January 2009. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ "Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand – Sodium". Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand. Australian Government National Health and Medical Research Council/ New Zealand Ministry of Health. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ "Dietary Guidelines focus on sodium intake, sugary drinks, dairy alternatives". Food Navigator-usa.com. Decision News Media. 27 April 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ "Sodium Chloride". Eat Well, Be Well. UK Government Food Standards Agency. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ "Health Canada, Healthy Living, Sodium". Healthy Living. Health Canada. 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2010.
- ^ a b "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010" (PDF). US Department of Agriculture and US Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
- ^ a b Barber 1999:136
- ^ Weller, Olivier; Dumitroaia, Gheorghe (December 2005). "The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania". Antiquity. 79 (306).
- ^ Template:Fr icon Arhives-ouvertes.fr ArchæDyn – Dijon, 23–25 June 2008 Dynamics settlement pattern, production and trades from Neolithic to Middle Ages
- ^ a b c d Kurlansky 2002
- ^ Onbekende Wereld by Wim Offeciers (based on Douchan Gersi's travels)
- ^ Harper, Douglas. "salt". Online Etymology Dictionary.
- ^ "salt". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ "The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th edition". Answers.com. Retrieved 14 December 2008.
- ^ James V. Livingston (2005). Agriculture and soil pollution: new research. Nova Publishers. p. 45. ISBN 1594543100.
- ^ Shahidi, Fereidoon; John Shi; Ho, Chi-Tang (2005). Asian functional foods. Boca Raton: CRC Press. p. 575. ISBN 0-8247-5855-2.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "References on food salt & health issues". Salt Institute. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ "European Salt Producers' Association". Eu-salt.com. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ "Roskill Information Services". Roskill.com. 30 March 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ "Salt made the world go round". Salt.org.il. 1 September 1997. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ Nauticus – Weather Curriculum. Nauticus.org. Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ What is salt? UK Salt Manufacturers' Association
- ^ About salt. Production. The Salt Manufacturers Association
- ^ "Tesco Table Salt 750g". Tesco. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
Nutritional analysis provided with Tesco Table Salt states 38.9% sodium by weight which equals 97.3% sodium chloride
- ^ Table Salt. Wasalt.com.au. Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ The international Codex Alimentarius Standard for Food Grade Salt. (PDF) . Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ "Rice in Salt Shakers". Ask a Scientist. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ "Food Freshness". KOMO News. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ "Physical properties". Salt Institute. 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ McNeil, Donald G. Jr (16 December 2006). "In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt". New York Times. Retrieved 4 December 2008.
- ^ Markel H (1987). ""When it rains it pours": endemic goiter, iodized salt, and David Murray Cowie, MD". American journal of public health. 77 (2): 219–29. doi:10.2105/AJPH.77.2.219. PMC 1646845. PMID 3541654.
- ^ "Iodized salt". Salt Institute. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ "Discussion Paper on the setting of maximum and minimum amounts for vitamins and minerals in foodstuffs" (PDF). Directorate-General Health & Consumers. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ a b c Gisbert Westphal, Gerhard Kristen, Wilhelm Wegener, Peter Ambatiello, Helmut Geyer, Bernard Epron, Christian Bonal, Georg Steinhauser, Franz Götzfried "Sodium Chloride" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim doi:10.1002/14356007.a24_317.pub4
- ^ a b Discussions of the safety of sodium hexaferrocyanate in table salt. Hansard.millbanksystems.com (5 May 1993). Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ "Ferrocyanides in salt for feed use is acceptable as regards safety for target animals and human consumer..." (PDF). Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ "Morton Salt FAQ". Retrieved 12 May 2007.
- ^ History. Salt and the Chemical Revolution. The Salt Manufacturers Association
- ^ Burgess, Wilella Daniels; Mason, April C. "What Are All Those Chemicals in My Food?". School of Consumer and Family Sciences, Purdue University. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
- ^ "The Salt of Southeast Asia". Pacific Northwest Magazine. The Seattle Times. 2001. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ a b c Salt Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria). Betterhealth.vic.gov.au. Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ Cleveland Clinic Health Information Center Dysautonomia page. Clevelandclinic.org. Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ Safety data for sodium chloride The Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory of Oxford University (18 November 2005). Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ Turk, E; Schulz, F; Koops, E; Gehl, A; Tsokos, M (2005). "Fatal hypernatremia after using salt as an emetic?report of three autopsy cases". Legal Medicine. 7 (1): 47. doi:10.1016/j.legalmed.2004.06.005. PMID 15556015.
{{cite journal}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help); More than one of|pages=
and|page=
specified (help) - ^ a b c Dumler, F (2009 Jan). "Dietary sodium intake and arterial blood pressure". Journal of renal nutrition : the official journal of the Council on Renal Nutrition of the National Kidney Foundation. 19 (1): 57–60. doi:10.1053/j.jrn.2008.10.006. PMID 19121772.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help) - ^ Taylor, RS (2011 Jul 6). "Reduced Dietary Salt for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials (Cochrane Review)". American journal of hypertension. 24 (8): 843–53. doi:10.1038/ajh.2011.115. PMID 21731062.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Strazzullo P, D'Elia L, Kandala NB, Cappuccio FP (2009). "Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies". BMJ. 339: b4567. doi:10.1136/bmj.b4567. PMC 2782060. PMID 19934192.
{{cite journal}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health, page 3
- ^ a b Food Safety Authority of Ireland Salt and Health: Review of the Scientific Evidence and Recommendations for Public Policy in Ireland, p. 12
- ^ Australia: Better Health Channel (Australia, Victoria) Fluid retention
- ^ Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health, page 18
- ^ Salt raises 'stomach cancer risk', BBC News, 7 January 2004
- ^ He FJ, MacGregor GA (9 May 2005). "Effect of longer-term modest salt reduction on blood pressure". The Cochrane Collaboration Cochrane Reviews. The Cochrane Collaboration. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
- ^ Jairo de Jesus Mancilha-Carvalho, Nelson Albuquerque de Souza e Silva (2003). "Yanomami Indians in the INTERSALT study" (PDF). Arq Bras Cardiol. 80 (3): 295–300.
- ^ Why Files article Salt and other wounds
- ^ Gary Taubes (1998). "The (Political) Science of Salt". Science. 281 (5379): 898–907. doi:10.1126/science.281.5379.898. PMID 9722464.
- ^ Sodium Chloride – High Blood Pressure – The Great Salt Myth. Health-report.co.uk. Retrieved on 30 September 2011.
- ^ Salt 'Food Myth' Debunked. Consumerfreedom.com. Retrieved on 30 September 2011.
- ^ Henry, James P. (1988). "Stress, salt and hypertension". Social Science & Medicine. 26 (3): 293. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(88)90393-0.
- ^ Salt – Myths and Facts. Prnewswire.co.uk (29 November 2006). Retrieved on 30 September 2011.
- ^ Go Ahead, Salt Your Food – Salt Myths – Hypertension and Sodium – Why Salt Is Good. Esquire (30 April 2008). Retrieved on 30 September 2011.
- ^ Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN) Salt and Health
- ^ Health Canada Dietary Reference Intakes
- ^ NHMRC Reference Nutrient Values, Sodium
- ^ Zied, Elisa (31 January 2011). "New U.S. Dietary Guidelines Focus on Salt Reduction". US News and World Report.
- ^ Gardner, Amanda (31 January 2011). "Hold the salt! New food rules lower sodium limits". msnbc.com.
- ^ Alexandra Greeley A Pinch of Controversy Shakes Up Dietary Salt. US Food and Drug Administration
- ^ McCarron, D. A.; Geerling, J. C.; Kazaks, A. G.; Stern, J. S. (2009). "Can Dietary Sodium Intake Be Modified by Public Policy?". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 4 (11): 1878. doi:10.2215/CJN.04660709. PMID 19833911.
{{cite journal}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help); More than one of|pages=
and|page=
specified (help) - ^ Understanding labels. Salt.gov.uk (6 November 2009). Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ Food and Drug Administration A Food Labeling Guide—Appendix A
- ^ Salt Manufacturers Association press release New salt campaign under attack
- ^ Advertising Standards Authority Broadcast Advertising Adjudications: 20 April 2005 (PDF)
- ^ Salt TV ads. Salt.gov.uk (6 November 2009). Retrieved on 7 July 2011.
- ^ Dr Trevor Beard (26 March 2009). Salt Matters "Salt Matters". University of Tasmania. Retrieved 17 May 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Check|url=
value (help) - ^ "CASH Consensus Action on Salt".
- ^ Smithers, Rebecca (28 January 2008). "Child health fears over high salt levels in sweet foods". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
- ^ Caruso, David B. "NYC asks food manufacturers to cut salt content," Associated Press, 11 January 2010.
- ^ McKay, Betsy. “PepsiCo Develops 'Designer Salt' to Chip Away at Sodium Intake,” The Wall Street Journal, 22 March 2010
- ^ Nestle Prepared Foods Company to Decrease Sodium by Another 10% by 2015", Prnewswire
- ^ Scott-Thomas, Caroline, “General Mills announces sodium reduction strategy,” Food Navigator, 14 April 2010.
- ^ Wilson, N. (2004). "Salt tax could reduce population's salt intake". BMJ. 329 (7471): 918. doi:10.1136/bmj.329.7471.918-c.
- ^ "Salt tax could massively reduce US mortality rates, healthcare costs". 11 March 2010.
- ^ "About the Salt Institute". Salt Institute. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ "Food salt & health". Salt Institute. 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ Survey Shows Many People Have Misconceptions About Red Wine, Sea Salt. Dr. Cutler (27 April 2011). Retrieved on 5 May 2011.
- ^ Feldman, Susan R. (2005). Sodium Chloride in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1915040902051820.a01.pub2.
- ^ "EU Demand for Salt Is Expanding".
- ^ Strong's Concordance
- ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .
- ^ Naftali Silberberg Why is the Challah dipped in salt before it is eaten?, Chabad.org
- ^ a b "10+1 Things you may not know about Salt". Epikouria. Fall/Winter (3). 2006.
- ^ Can you pass the salt, please?, Robert Camara, 30 March 2009
Bibliography
- Barber, Elizabeth Wayland (1999). The Mummies of Ürümchi. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0393320197. OCLC 48426519.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Kurlansky, Mark (2002). Salt: A World History. New York: Walker & Co. ISBN 0802713734. OCLC 48573453.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Carusi, Cristina, Il sale nel mondo greco, VI a.C.-III d.C.: luoghi di produzione, circolazione commerciale, regimi di sfruttamento nel contesto del Mediterraneo antico (Bari: Edipuglia, 2008) (Pragmateiai; 15).
Further reading
- Alden, Lori (2005). "Salt". The Cook's Thesaurus.
- Cowen, Richard (May 1999). "The Importance of Salt". Department of Geology. UC Davis.
- Zacharias, Patricia (23 January 2000). "The ghostly salt city beneath Detroit". The Detroit News.
External links