Nerium: Difference between revisions
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Drying of plant materials does not eliminate the toxins. It is also hazardous for animals such as [[sheep]], [[horse]]s, [[cattle]], and other grazing animals, with as little as 100 g being enough to kill an adult horse.<ref name=Knight>[http://www.vth.colostate.edu/poisonous_plants/report/report_detail_1.cfm?ID=334 Knight, A. P. (1999). "Guide to Poisonous Plants: Oleander". Colorado State University. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.]</ref> Plant clippings are especially dangerous to horses, as they are sweet. In July 2009, several horses were poisoned in this manner from the leaves of the plant.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2009/CRIME/08/01/california.horses/index.html?iref=mpstoryview Trevino, Monica. 2009. Dozens of horses poisoned at California farm. CNN: Crime. Retrieved on 2009-08-03]</ref> Symptoms of a poisoned horse include severe diarrhea and abnormal heartbeat. There is a wide range of toxins and secondary compounds within oleander, and care should be taken around this plant due to its toxic nature. Different names for oleander are used around the world in different locations, so, when encountering a plant with this appearance, regardless of the name used for it, one should exercise great care and caution to avoid ingestion of any part of the plant, including its sap and dried leaves or twigs. The dried or fresh branches should not be used for spearing food, for preparing a cooking fire, or as a food skewer. Many of the oleander relatives, such as the desert rose (''[[Adenium|Adenium obesum]]'') found in East Africa, have similar leaves and flowers and are equally toxic. |
Drying of plant materials does not eliminate the toxins. It is also hazardous for animals such as [[sheep]], [[horse]]s, [[cattle]], and other grazing animals, with as little as 100 g being enough to kill an adult horse.<ref name=Knight>[http://www.vth.colostate.edu/poisonous_plants/report/report_detail_1.cfm?ID=334 Knight, A. P. (1999). "Guide to Poisonous Plants: Oleander". Colorado State University. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.]</ref> Plant clippings are especially dangerous to horses, as they are sweet. In July 2009, several horses were poisoned in this manner from the leaves of the plant.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2009/CRIME/08/01/california.horses/index.html?iref=mpstoryview Trevino, Monica. 2009. Dozens of horses poisoned at California farm. CNN: Crime. Retrieved on 2009-08-03]</ref> Symptoms of a poisoned horse include severe diarrhea and abnormal heartbeat. There is a wide range of toxins and secondary compounds within oleander, and care should be taken around this plant due to its toxic nature. Different names for oleander are used around the world in different locations, so, when encountering a plant with this appearance, regardless of the name used for it, one should exercise great care and caution to avoid ingestion of any part of the plant, including its sap and dried leaves or twigs. The dried or fresh branches should not be used for spearing food, for preparing a cooking fire, or as a food skewer. Many of the oleander relatives, such as the desert rose (''[[Adenium|Adenium obesum]]'') found in East Africa, have similar leaves and flowers and are equally toxic. |
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===Folklore=== |
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The alleged toxicity of the plant makes it the center of an [[urban legend]] documented on several continents and over more than a century. Often told as a true and local event, typically an entire family, or in other tellings a group of scouts, succumbs after consuming hot dogs or other food roasted over a campfire using oleander sticks.[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/poison/oleander.asp] |
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=== Therapeutic efficacy === |
=== Therapeutic efficacy === |
Revision as of 17:07, 10 July 2014
Nerium | |
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Nerium oleander in flower | |
Scientific classification | |
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Genus: | Nerium |
Species: | N. oleander
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Binomial name | |
Nerium oleander L.
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Synonyms[1][2] | |
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Nerium oleander /ˈnɪəriəm ˈoʊliː.ændər/[3] is an evergreen shrub or small tree in the dogbane family Apocynaceae, toxic in all its parts. It is the only species currently classified in the genus Nerium. It is most commonly known as oleander, from its superficial resemblance to the unrelated olive Olea.[Note 1] It is so widely cultivated that no precise region of origin has been identified, though southwest Asia has been suggested. The ancient city of Volubilis in Morocco may have taken its name from the Berber name oualilt for the flower.[4] Oleander is one of the most poisonous of commonly grown garden plants.
Description
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Oleander_Capsule_Opens.jpg/220px-Oleander_Capsule_Opens.jpg)
Oleander grows to 2–6 m (6.6–19.7 ft) tall, with erect stems that splay outward as they mature; first-year stems have a glaucous bloom, while mature stems have a grayish bark. The leaves are in pairs or whorls of three, thick and leathery, dark-green, narrow lanceolate, 5–21 cm (2.0–8.3 in) long and 1–3.5 cm (0.39–1.38 in) broad, and with an entire margin. The flowers grow in clusters at the end of each branch; they are white, pink to red,[Note 2] 2.5–5 cm (0.98–1.97 in) diameter, with a deeply 5-lobed fringed corolla round the central corolla tube. They are often, but not always, sweet-scented.[Note 3] The fruit is a long narrow capsule 5–23 cm (2.0–9.1 in) long, which splits open at maturity to release numerous downy seeds.
Habitat and range
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Nerium_oleander_Ouarzazate_wild2.jpg/220px-Nerium_oleander_Ouarzazate_wild2.jpg)
N. oleander is either native or naturalized to a broad area from Mauritania, Morocco, and Portugal eastward through the Mediterranean region and the Sahara (where it is only found sporadically), to the Arabian peninsula, southern Asia, and as far East as Yunnan in southern parts of China.[5][6][7][8] It typically occurs around dry stream beds. Nerium oleander is planted in many subtropical and tropical areas of the world. On the East Coast of the US, it can be planted as far north as Virginia Beach, Virginia, while in California and Texas it is naturalized as a median strip planting.[citation needed]
Garden history
In his book Enquiries into Plants of circa 300 BC, Theophrastus described (among plants that affect the mind) a shrub he called onotheras, which modern editors render oleander; "the root of onotheras [oleander] administered in wine", he alleges, "makes the temper gentler and more cheerful".
The plant has a leaf like that of the almond, but smaller, and the flower is red like a rose. The plant itself (which loves hilly country) forms a large bush; the root is red and large, and, if this is dried, it gives off a fragrance like wine.
In another mention, of "wild bay" (Daphne agria), Theophrastus appears to intend the same shrub.[9]
Willa Cather, in her book The Song of the Lark, mentions oleander in this passage:
This morning Thea saw to her delight that the two oleander trees, one white and one red, had been brought up from their winter quarters in the cellar. There is hardly a German family in the most arid parts of Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, but has its oleander trees. However loutish the American-born sons of the family may be, there was never one who refused to give his muscle to the back-breaking task of getting those tubbed trees down into the cellar in the fall and up into the sunlight in the spring. They may strive to avert the day, but they grapple with the tub at last.[10]
Oleander is the official flower of the city of Hiroshima, having been the first to bloom following the atomic bombing of the city in 1945.[11]
Uses and effects
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Purity.jpg/220px-Purity.jpg)
Culture
It is known as kaneru (කනේරු) by Sinhalese people and as alari by Tamil.
Ornamental gardening
Oleander grows well in warm subtropical regions, where it is extensively used as an ornamental plant in landscapes, in parks, and along roadsides. It is drought-tolerant and will tolerate occasional light frost down to −10 °C (14 °F).[8] It is commonly used in landscaping freeway medians in California, Texas, and other mild-winter states in the Continental United States because it is upright in habit and easily maintained. Its toxicity renders it deer-resistant. It is tolerant of poor soils and drought. Oleander can also be grown in cooler climates in greenhouses and conservatories, or as indoor plants that can be kept outside in the summer. Oleander flowers are showy and fragrant and are grown for these reasons. Over 400 cultivars have been named, with several additional flower colours not found in wild plants having been selected, including red, purple, pink, and orange; white and a variety of pinks are the most common. Many cultivars also have double flowers. Young plants grow best in spaces where they do not have to compete with other plants for nutrients.
Toxicity
Nerium oleander has historically been considered a poisonous plant because some of its compounds may exhibit toxicity, especially to animals, when consumed in high amounts. Among these compounds are oleandrin and oleandrigenin, known as cardiac glycosides, which are known to have a narrow therapeutic index and can be toxic when ingested.
Toxicity studies of animals administered oleander extract concluded that rodents and birds were observed to be relatively insensitive to oleander cardiac glycosides.[12] Other mammals, however, such as dogs and humans, are relatively sensitive to the effects of cardiac glycosides and the clinical manifestations of "glycoside intoxication".[12][13][14]
However, despite the common "poisonous" designation of this plant, very few toxic events in humans have been reported. According to the Toxic Exposure Surveillance System, in 2002, 847 human exposures to oleander were reported to poison centers in the United States.[15] Despite this exposure level, from 1985 through 2005, only three deaths were reported. One cited death was apparently due to the ingestion of oleander leaves by a diabetic man.[16] His blood indicated a total blood concentration of cardiac glycosides of about 20 μg/l, which is well above the reported fatal level. Another study reported on the death of a woman who self-administered "an undefined oleander extract" both orally and rectally and her oleandrin tissue levels were 10 to 39 μg/g, which were in the high range of reported levels at autopsy.[17] And finally, one study reported the death of a woman who ingested oleander 'tea'.[18] Few other details were provided.
In contrast to consumption of these undefined oleander-derived materials, no toxicity or deaths were reported from topical administration or contact with N. oleander or specific products derived from them. In reviewing oleander toxicity, Lanford and Boor[19] concluded that, except for children who might be at greater risk, "the human mortality associated with oleander ingestion is generally very low, even in cases of moderate intentional consumption (suicide attempts)".[19]
Toxicity studies conducted in dogs and rodents administered oleander extracts by intramuscular injection indicated that, on an equivalent weight basis, doses of an oleander extract with glycosides 10 times those likely to be administered therapeutically to humans are still safe and without any "severe toxicity observed".[20]
Effects of poisoning
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Oleandrin-skeletal.svg/220px-Oleandrin-skeletal.svg.png)
Ingestion of this plant can affect the gastrointestinal system, the heart, and the central nervous system. The gastrointestinal effects can consist of nausea and vomiting, excess salivation, abdominal pain, diarrhea that may or may not contain blood, and especially in horses, colic.[7] Cardiac reactions consist of irregular heart rate, sometimes characterized by a racing heart at first that then slows to below normal further along in the reaction. Extremities may become pale and cold due to poor or irregular circulation. The effect on the central nervous system may show itself in symptoms such as drowsiness, tremors or shaking of the muscles, seizures, collapse, and even coma that can lead to death.
Oleander sap can cause skin irritations, severe eye inflammation and irritation, and allergic reactions characterized by dermatitis.[21]
Treatment
Poisoning and reactions to oleander plants are evident quickly, requiring immediate medical care in suspected or known poisonings of both humans and animals.[21] Induced vomiting and gastric lavage are protective measures to reduce absorption of the toxic compounds. Charcoal may also be administered to help absorb any remaining toxins.[7] Further medical attention may be required depending on the severity of the poisoning and symptoms. Temporary cardiac pacing will be required in many cases (usually for a few days) till the toxin is excreted.
Digoxin immune fab is the best way to cure an oleander poisoning if inducing vomiting has no or minimal success, although it is usually used only for life-threatening conditions due to side effects.[citation needed]
Drying of plant materials does not eliminate the toxins. It is also hazardous for animals such as sheep, horses, cattle, and other grazing animals, with as little as 100 g being enough to kill an adult horse.[22] Plant clippings are especially dangerous to horses, as they are sweet. In July 2009, several horses were poisoned in this manner from the leaves of the plant.[23] Symptoms of a poisoned horse include severe diarrhea and abnormal heartbeat. There is a wide range of toxins and secondary compounds within oleander, and care should be taken around this plant due to its toxic nature. Different names for oleander are used around the world in different locations, so, when encountering a plant with this appearance, regardless of the name used for it, one should exercise great care and caution to avoid ingestion of any part of the plant, including its sap and dried leaves or twigs. The dried or fresh branches should not be used for spearing food, for preparing a cooking fire, or as a food skewer. Many of the oleander relatives, such as the desert rose (Adenium obesum) found in East Africa, have similar leaves and flowers and are equally toxic.
Folklore
The alleged toxicity of the plant makes it the center of an urban legend documented on several continents and over more than a century. Often told as a true and local event, typically an entire family, or in other tellings a group of scouts, succumbs after consuming hot dogs or other food roasted over a campfire using oleander sticks.[1]
Therapeutic efficacy
Drugs derived from N. oleander have been investigated as a treatment for cancer.[24][25] According to the American Cancer Society, the trials have produced no evidence of benefit, but they did cause adverse side effects.[26]
Ecology
Some invertebrates are known to be unaffected by oleander toxins, and feed on the plants. Caterpillars of the polka-dot wasp moth (Syntomeida epilais) feed specifically on oleanders and survive by eating only the pulp surrounding the leaf-veins, avoiding the fibers. Larvae of the common crow butterfly (Euploea core) also feed on oleanders, and they retain or modify toxins, making them unpalatable to would-be predators such as birds, but not to other invertebrates such as spiders and wasps.
Gallery
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N. oleander (அறளி aṛaḷi), found in Tamil Nadu, Chennai
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N. oleander bud (அறளி மொட்டு aṛaḷi mǒţţu), found in Tamil Nadu, Chennai
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N. oleander, found in Tamil Nadu, Chennai
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N. oleander, found in Tamil Nadu, Chennai
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Oleander white flowers, Guntur
See also
- List of ineffective cancer treatments
- List of plants poisonous to equines
- List of poisonous plants
- Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands
Notes
- ^ Cf. oleaster
- ^ The "Yellow Oleander" is Thevetia peruviana.
- ^ In the past, scented plants were sometimes treated as the distinct species N. odorum, but the character is not constant and it is no longer regarded as a separate taxon.
References
- ^ "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, entry for Nerium oleander". Retrieved May 18, 2014.
- ^ "World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, entry for Nerium". Retrieved May 18, 2014.
- ^ Sunset Western Garden Book, 1995:606–607
- ^ "Archaeological Site of Volubilis". African World Heritage Fund. Retrieved 2013-05-12.
- ^ Pankhurst, R. (editor). Nerium oleander L. Flora Europaea. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- ^ Bingtao Li, Antony J. M. Leeuwenberg, and D. J. Middleton. "Nerium oleander L.", Flora of China. Harvard University. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- ^ a b c INCHEM (2005). Nerium oleander L. (PIM 366). International Programme on Chemical Safety: INCHEM. Retrieved on 2009-07-27
- ^ a b Huxley, A.; Griffiths, M.; Levy, M. (eds.) (1992). The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
- ^ Theophrastus. Inquiry into Plants, A. F. Hort, tr. Loeb Classical Library. pp. I.9.3, IX.19.1.
- ^ Cather, Willa (1915). "IV". The Song of the Lark. Project Gutenberg. p. 26.
{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help) - ^ http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/892.pdf
- ^ a b Szabuniewicz M, Schwartz WL, McCrady JD; et al. (1972). "Experimental oleander poisoning and treatment". Southwestern Vet. 25 (2): 105–114.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Szabuniewicz, M., Schwartz, W.L., McCrady, J.D., Russell, L.H. and Camp, B.J. (1971) Treatment of experimentally induced oleander poisoning. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 189, 12–21.
- ^ Hougen, T.J., Lloyd, B.L. and Smith, T.W. (1979) Effects of inotropic and arrhythmogenic digoxin doses and of digoxin-specific antibody on myocardial monovalent cation trans-port in the dog. Circ. Res. 44, 23–31.
- ^ Watson, William A., et al. 2003. 2002 Annual Report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. American Journal of Emergency Medicine 21 (5): 353-421.
- ^ Wasfi, Ibrahim A.; Zorob, Omar; Al Katheeri, Nawal A.; Al Awadhi, Anwar M. (2008). "A fatal case of oleandrin poisoning". Forensic Science International. 179 (2–3): e31–6. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2008.05.002. PMID 18602779.
- ^ Blum, L. M. & F. Reiders (1987). "Oleandrin distribution in a fatality from rectal and oral Nerium oleander extract administration". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 11 (5): 219–221. PMID 3682781.
- ^ Haynes, B. E., H. A. Bessen & W. D. Wightman (1985). "Oleander tea: herbal draught of death". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 14 (4): 350–353. doi:10.1016/S0196-0644(85)80103-7. PMID 4039113.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b S. D. Langford & P. J. Boor (1996). "Oleander toxicity: an examination of human and animal toxic exposures". Toxicology. 109 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/0300-483X(95)03296-R. PMID 8619248.
- ^ Rhodes JW. Non-GLP Single Dose Lethality Assessment of Nerium Oleander (NOI) by Intramuscular Administration in the Rat. Southwest Research Institute Project 12-7547-029.
- ^ a b Goetz, Rebecca. J. (1998). "Oleander". Indiana Plants Poisonous to Livestock and Pets. Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue University. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- ^ Knight, A. P. (1999). "Guide to Poisonous Plants: Oleander". Colorado State University. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- ^ Trevino, Monica. 2009. Dozens of horses poisoned at California farm. CNN: Crime. Retrieved on 2009-08-03
- ^ Henary, HA; Kurzrock, R; Falchook, GS; et al. (2011). "Final Results of a First-in-Human Phase 1 Trial of PBI-05204, and Inhibitor of AKT, FGF-2, NF-Kb and P70S6K in Advanced Cancer Patients". J Clin Oncol. 29 (supplement, abstract 3023).
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|last3=
(help) - ^ Newman, R. A.; Yang, P.; Pawlus, A. D.; Block, K. I. (2008). "Cardiac Glycosides as Novel Cancer Therapeutic Agents". Molecular Interventions. 8 (1): 36–49. doi:10.1124/mi.8.1.8. PMID 18332483.
- ^ "Oleander Leaf". American Cancer Society. Retrieved April 2013.
{{cite web}}
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External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/34px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png)
- Clemson University: Oleander Facts. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- International Oleander Society: Information on Oleander toxicity. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- Barcelona Botanic Gardens: Plants of North Africa. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- Erwin, Van den Enden. 2004. Illustrated Lecture Notes on Tropical Medicine. Medical problems caused by plants: Plant Toxins, Cardiac Glycosides. Prince Leopold Institute of Tropical Medicine. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- Desai, Umesh R. Cardiac glycosides. Virginia Commonwealth University. School of Pharmacy. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- Snopes: Legend of Oleander-poisoning at Campfire. Retrieved on 2009-07-27.
- Distribution over the world, University of Helsinki
- Apocynaceae
- Drought-tolerant trees
- Flora of Chad
- Flora of Egypt
- Flora of Iran
- Flora of Lebanon
- Flora of Libya
- Flora of North Africa
- Flora of Pakistan
- Flora of Sudan
- Flora of the Maldives
- Flora of the Mediterranean
- Flora of the Middle East
- Flora of the Sahara
- Flora of Western Asia
- Garden plants of Africa
- Garden plants of Asia
- Invasive plant species in South Africa
- Medicinal plants
- Monotypic plant genera
- Ornamental trees
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