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I have expanded and changed the introductory sentence and 'Description and field identification' section. I have added the following sections: Taxonomy and evolution, Distribution and habitat, Ecology (including Feeding, Feeding adaptations and Breeding) and Threats. I have also inserted a distribution map.
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The White-browed Treecreeper (''Climacteris affinis'') is the smallest of the Australo-papuan Treecreepers and sole family member adapted to arid environments.<ref name=":0">{{Cite thesis|last=Radford|first=James|title=Conservation ecology and breeding biology of the white-browed treecreeper, Climacteris affinis|date=2002|degree=Ph. D|publisher=Deakin University|url=http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30023138/radford-conservationecology-2002.pdf|doi=}}</ref> The species foraging strategy involves climbing the trunks of trees in search of invertebrate prey on and under bark. Although some populations within the species range have declined the species [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] conservation status is of [[Least-concern species|Least Concern]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Radford|first=James Q.|last2=Bennett|first2=Andrew F.|date=2004|title=Thresholds in landscape parameters: occurrence of the white-browed treecreeper Climacteris affinis in Victoria, Australia|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320703003136|journal=Biological Conservation|volume=117|issue=4|pages=375–391|doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2003.08.002|issn=0006-3207|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22703571A93928370.en|title=Climacteris affinis: BirdLife International|date=2016-10-01|website=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species|doi=10.2305/iucn.uk.2016-3.rlts.t22703571a93928370.en|access-date=2018-06-07}}</ref>

{{Taxobox
{{Taxobox
| name = White-browed treecreeper
| name = White-browed treecreeper
| image = White-browed Treecreeper (7141277955).jpg
| image = White-browed Treecreeper (7141277955).jpg
| range_map_caption = Distribution of ''Climacteris affinis'' in red
| status = LC
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>{{IUCN|id=22703571 |title=''Climacteris affinis'' |assessor=BirdLife International |assessor-link=BirdLife International |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=26 November 2013}}</ref>
| status_ref =
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| image_caption =
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| regnum = [[Animalia]]
| ordo = [[Passeriformes]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| familia = [[Climacteridae]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| genus = ''[[Climacteris]]''
| ordo = [[Passeriformes]]
| familia = [[Climacteridae]]
⚫
| species = '''''C. affinis'''''
| binomial = ''Climacteris affinis''
| genus = ''[[Climacteris]]''
⚫
| species = '''''C. affinis'''''
| binomial = ''Climacteris affinis''
| binomial_authority = [[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1864
| binomial_authority = [[Edward Blyth|Blyth]], 1864
| range_map = [[File:Map export-5.jpg|thumb|]]
⚫
| synonyms =
| range_map_width =
⚫
| synonyms =
}}
}}

The '''white-browed treecreeper''' (''Climacteris affinis'') is a species of [[bird]] in the [[Climacteridae]] family.
It is [[Endemism|endemic]] to [[Australia]].


[[Image:White-browed Treecreeper.ogv|thumb|300px|left|Eulo, SW Queensland, Australia]]
[[Image:White-browed Treecreeper.ogv|thumb|300px|left|Eulo, SW Queensland, Australia]]
{{clear}}
{{clear}}


== Description ==
== Taxonomy and evolution ==
The White-browed Treecreeper (''Climacteris affinis'') is one of 7 species of Australo-Papuan endemic treecreepers (Family: Climacteridae).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Handbook of the birds of the world|last=del Hoya|first=Josep|last2=Elliot|first2=Andrew|last3=Sargatal|first3=David|publisher=Lynx Edicions|year=2007|isbn=84-96553-42-6|volume=12|location=Barcelona|pages=}}</ref> Prior to the development of molecular diagnostic techniques, the relationship of Climacteridae to other avian families was long debated. [[Phylogenetic analysis]] has since revealed the family to be most closely related to [[Bowerbird|bowerbirds]] and [[Catbird|catbirds]] (Family: Ptilonorhynchidae).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=F. Keith|last2=Barrowclough|first2=George F.|last3=Groth|first3=Jeff G.|date=2002-02-07|title=A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data|url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/269/1488/295|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=269|issue=1488|pages=295–308|doi=10.1098/rspb.2001.1883|issn=0962-8452|pmc=PMC1690884|pmid=11839199}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Barker|first=F. Keith|last2=Cibois|first2=Alice|last3=Schikler|first3=Peter|last4=Feinstein|first4=Julie|last5=Cracraft|first5=Joel|date=2004-07-27|title=Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation|url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0401892101|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=101|issue=30|pages=11040–11045|doi=10.1073/pnas.0401892101|pmc=PMC503738|pmid=15263073}}</ref> Together these two families are thought to represent one of the most ancient linages of ‘[[Songbird|songbirds]]’ (oscines, suborder Passeri), diverging early during the rise and radiation of [[oscines]] in [[Australia]].<ref name=":3" /> The further split between Climacteridae and Ptilonorhynchidae is estimated to have occurred 58.7-35.2 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ericson|first=Per GP|last2=Klopfstein|first2=Seraina|last3=Irestedt|first3=Martin|last4=Nguyen|first4=Jacqueline MT|last5=Nylander|first5=Johan AA|date=2014-01-15|title=Dating the diversification of the major lineages of Passeriformes (Aves)|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-14-8|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=14|issue=1|pages=8|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-14-8|issn=1471-2148|pmc=PMC3917694|pmid=24422673}}</ref>
It is brown and grey with black and white streaks all over its breast. Its face has thin black streaks and a long bright white brow which it gets its name from. It has a buff wing-bar<ref>Michael Morcombe, ''The field guide to Australian birds'', Steve Parish Publishing (2004)</ref>


Within Climacteridae, two genera are recognised ''Climacteris'' and ''Cormobates''.<ref name=":2" /> Molecular analysis estimates the divergence between genera to have occurred during the [[Eocene]]-early-[[Miocene]] period.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jønsson|first=Knud A.|last2=Fabre|first2=Pierre-Henri|last3=Ricklefs|first3=Robert E.|last4=Fjeldså|first4=Jon|date=2011-02-08|title=Major global radiation of corvoid birds originated in the proto-Papuan archipelago|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/108/6/2328|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=108|issue=6|pages=2328–2333|doi=10.1073/pnas.1018956108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=PMC3038755|pmid=21262814}}</ref> This estimate further is supported by the recovery of fossils referred to both genera within early [[Miocene]] deposits in [[Queensland]], Australia.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Nguyen|first=Jacqueline M. T.|date=2016|title=Australo-Papuan treecreepers (Passeriformes: Climacteridae) and a new species of sittella (Neosittidae: Daphoenositta) from the Miocene of Australia|url=https://doi.org/10.26879/602|journal=Palaeontologia Electronica|language=English|volume=19|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=|issn=1094-8074|via=}}</ref> These ancient fossils all exhibit morphological features associated with [[Arboreal locomotion|scansorial]] (tree-trunk climbing), the primary mode of locomotion used during foraging by all extant species. The presence of these features suggest this foraging strategy to have evolved early within the family’s evolutionary history.<ref name=":4" />
⚫
==Conservation Status==

The genus name ‘''Climacteris''’ is derived from the Greek term meaning ‘the rung of a ladder’, and refers to the groups tree-trunk climbing habits. The species name ‘''affins''’, Latin for 'allied', refers to the species resemblance to the [[Red-browed treecreeper|Red-browed Treecreeper]] (''Climacteris erythrops'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/23753076|title=Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic birds|date=1990-2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Marchant, S., Higgins, P. J. (Peter Jeffrey), 1959-, Ambrose, S. J., Davies, S. J. J. F., Steele, W. K. (William K.)|isbn=0195530683|location=Melbourne|oclc=23753076}}</ref>

=== Subspecies ===
Two subspecies are recognised:

* ''C. a. affinis'' <small>Blyth, 1863</small> – Australia, east of [[Spencer Gulf|Spencers Gulf]] (rump uppertail coverts and tail grey)
* ''C. a. superciliosus'' <small>North, 1895</small> – Australia, west of [[Spencer Gulf|Spencers Gulf]] (rump, uppertail coverts and tail brown)<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" />

== Description and field identification ==
The White-browed Treecreeper is 14-16cm in length, has a wingspan of 22cm and weighs 21gm. Adult male plumage is mostly dark grey above (crown, neck, rump and uppertail) excluding the mantle and scapulars of which are brown and black sub-terminal tail-band. Facial plumage includes black lores, white tapered eyebrow and black and white streaked ear-coverts. The chin is white and throat brownish grey. The upper breast is grey and lower breast, belly, flanks and vent streaked black and white. Undertail coverts are barred black and white. Females are similar to males but with rufous stripe bordering the upper edge of the eyebrow and dull white streaking, tinged rufous, on the centre of the upper breast. In both sexes the bill is black, around 1.5-2cm long and is relatively straight and slender. The iris is dark brown and legs and feet black. Juveniles differ from adults with pale grey bill and both facial patterning and ear-covert streaking duller and less distinct.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" />

The White-browed Treecreeper has moderately long wedge shaped wings and square tail. Flight pattern over longer distances is undulated, involving brief bursts of flapping within long glides, during of which a buff wingbar is visible.<ref name=":2" />

=== Similar species ===
The [[Brown treecreeper|Brown Treecreeper]] (''Climacteris picumnus'') is similar in appearance to the White-browed Treecreeper, however the Brown Treecreepers breast streaks are duller and ear covert streaking confined to rear coverts. In addition, Brown Treecreepers short shrill ‘''peep''’ calls differ greatly to that of the White-browed Treecreepers long ‘''prrrpt''’ insect-like calls.<ref name=":5" />

== Distribution and habitat ==
White-browed Treecreepers inhabit arid and semi-arid regions across southern Australia, excluding [[Tasmania]].<ref name=":5" /> The two subspecies ranges do not overlap, ''C. a. affinis'' found east of the [[Spencer Gulf|Spencer’s Gulf]] and ''C. a. superciliosus'' to the west.<ref name=":0" /> White-browed Treecreepers inhabit a range of woodland and shrubland communities, dominated by either ''[[Acacia]], [[Casuarina]]'' or ''[[Callitris]]'' species, with both dense and open understory's.<ref name=":5" />

White-browed Treecreepers are [[Sedentary lifestyle|sedentary]], pairs or groups actively defending relatively large territories (averaging 8.4 [[Hectare|hectares]] in some regions) throughout the year.<ref name=":0" />

== Ecology ==

=== Feeding ===
The White-browed Treecreeper is a [[Arboreal locomotion|scansorial]] (tree-trunk climbing) bark-foraging specialist, feeding upon a range of invertebrates (predominantly ants) gathered from on and beneath the bark of tree trunks and branches.<ref name=":5" /> The climbing technique employed by the species is described as ‘inching’ by which the lower foot is lifted and brought to the level of the upper foot prior to the upper being moved higher.<ref name=":6">Orenstein, Ronald. (1977). Morphological Adaptations for Bark Foraging in Australian Treecreepers (Aves: Climacteridae) (PhD). University of Michigan.</ref> Such a technique differs from some other [[Arboreal locomotion|scansorial]] birds which lift their feet from the substrate simultaneously in a hopping or hitching fashion.<ref name=":6" /> Once White-browed Treecreepers reach the uppermost portions of a tree they glide down to a lower position on a nearby tree to recommence climbing.<ref name=":5" /> The species also frequently forages on the ground among logs and leaf litter.<ref name=":0" />

White-browed Treecreepers forage alone, in small family groups or during winter within mixed-species assemblages comprising other insectivores.<ref name=":0" />

=== Feeding adaptations ===
White-browed Treecreepers exhibit a number of morphological traits, primarily of the legs, feet and toes, thought to represent [[Arboreal locomotion|scansorial]] bark-foraging [[Adaptation|adaptations]]. Such traits include increased toe length (increasing the span of the foot), long strongly curved claws (assisting the gripping of substrates), increased [[syndactyly]] of the front toes and reduced pads on the sole of the foot (reducing contact of the plantar surface of the foot to the substrate).<ref name=":6" /> Additionally, ''Climacteris'' species are able to move the hind toe independently too that of the front toes due to a lack of some ligament within the foot. This enables finer adjustments of footings to be made.<ref name=":2" />

=== Breeding ===
White-browed Treecreepers breeding season varies across its range, commencing as early as July in the western parts of its range to August in the east, and continuing until November. White-browed treecreepers breed both as unassisted simple pairs or in cooperatively breeding units consisting of a breeding pair and 1-3 male offspring from previous years. Non-breeding male ‘helpers’ provide assistance with all nesting related activities, other than incubation and brooding (conducted by the female alone).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Radford|first=James Q.|date=2004|title=Breeding biology, adult survival and territoriality of the White-browed Treecreeper (Climacteris affinis) in north-west Victoria, Australia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/mu04002|journal=Emu - Austral Ornithology|volume=104|issue=4|pages=305–316|doi=10.1071/mu04002|issn=0158-4197|via=}}</ref>

White-browed Treecreepers build shallow saucer-shaped nests within tree hollows, made of bark fibres, grass, twigs and branchlets and line the nest with feathers, fur, vegetable down and wool.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> The female lays a clutch of 1-3 pinkish-white eggs speckled reddish and purplish-brown, of which she incubates for 17-18 days.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":2" /> Nestlings take approximately 25-26 days to fledge upon which they remain dependant on their parents and associated ‘helpers’ for food for up to 37 days.<ref name=":0" /> Although up to two broods may be raised per season White-browed Treecreepers have low productivity, with an average of only 1.58 young fledged per breeding unit annually.<ref name=":0" />

==Threats==
Threats to the White-browed Treecreeper include habitat loss and fragmentation due to land clearing. Such threats have resulted in population declines and range contractions within some regions including Victoria, Australia, within which the species is now listed as [[Threatened species|Threatened]] under state legislation.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":8" /> The White-browed Treecreeper has also been recognised as a species highly exposed to the effects of [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/864392667|title=Climate change adaptation plan for Australian birds|others=Garnett, Stephen, 1955-, Franklin, Donald Charles,|isbn=9780643108035|location=Collingwood, Vic.|oclc=864392667}}</ref>

⚫
== Conservation status ==
White-browed treecreepers are not listed as threatened on the Australian [[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]. However, their conservation status varies from state to state within Australia. For example:
White-browed treecreepers are not listed as threatened on the Australian [[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]. However, their conservation status varies from state to state within Australia. For example:

* The white-browed treecreeper is listed as '''threatened''' on the Victorian [[Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988)]].<ref>[http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/nrenpa.nsf/LinkView/EADA0F1874AF9CF24A2567C1001020A388BBA5581CF9D859CA256BB300271BDB Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria]</ref> Under this Act, an ''Action Statement'' for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared.<ref>[http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/nrenpa.nsf/LinkView/617768308BCB666E4A25684E00192281E7A24BB36FF60A144A256DEA00244294 Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria]</ref>
* The white-browed treecreeper is listed as '''threatened''' on the Victorian [[Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988)]].<ref name=":8">[http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/nrenpa.nsf/LinkView/EADA0F1874AF9CF24A2567C1001020A388BBA5581CF9D859CA256BB300271BDB Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria]</ref> Under this Act, an ''Action Statement'' for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared.<ref>[http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/DSE/nrenpa.nsf/LinkView/617768308BCB666E4A25684E00192281E7A24BB36FF60A144A256DEA00244294 Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria]</ref>
* On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the white-browed treecreeper is listed as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]].<ref name="DSE200">{{cite book | author = Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment | title = Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria - 2007 | publisher = Department of Sustainability and Environment | year = 2007 | location = East Melbourne, Victoria | pages = 15 | url = | isbn = 978-1-74208-039-0 }}</ref>
* On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the white-browed treecreeper is listed as [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]].<ref name="DSE200">{{cite book | author = Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment | title = Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria - 2007 | publisher = Department of Sustainability and Environment | year = 2007 | location = East Melbourne, Victoria | pages = 15 | url = | isbn = 978-1-74208-039-0 }}</ref>


Revision as of 09:12, 7 June 2018

The White-browed Treecreeper (Climacteris affinis) is the smallest of the Australo-papuan Treecreepers and sole family member adapted to arid environments.[1] The species foraging strategy involves climbing the trunks of trees in search of invertebrate prey on and under bark. Although some populations within the species range have declined the species IUCN conservation status is of Least Concern.[2][3]

White-browed treecreeper
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Passeriformes
Family:
Climacteridae
Genus:
Climacteris
Species:
C. affinis
Binomial name
Climacteris affinis
Blyth, 1864
Distribution of Climacteris affinis in red
Eulo, SW Queensland, Australia

Taxonomy and evolution

The White-browed Treecreeper (Climacteris affinis) is one of 7 species of Australo-Papuan endemic treecreepers (Family: Climacteridae).[4] Prior to the development of molecular diagnostic techniques, the relationship of Climacteridae to other avian families was long debated. Phylogenetic analysis has since revealed the family to be most closely related to bowerbirds and catbirds (Family: Ptilonorhynchidae).[5][6] Together these two families are thought to represent one of the most ancient linages of ‘songbirds’ (oscines, suborder Passeri), diverging early during the rise and radiation of oscines in Australia.[6] The further split between Climacteridae and Ptilonorhynchidae is estimated to have occurred 58.7-35.2 million years ago.[7]

Within Climacteridae, two genera are recognised Climacteris and Cormobates.[4] Molecular analysis estimates the divergence between genera to have occurred during the Eocene-early-Miocene period.[8] This estimate further is supported by the recovery of fossils referred to both genera within early Miocene deposits in Queensland, Australia.[9] These ancient fossils all exhibit morphological features associated with scansorial (tree-trunk climbing), the primary mode of locomotion used during foraging by all extant species. The presence of these features suggest this foraging strategy to have evolved early within the family’s evolutionary history.[9]

The genus name ‘Climacteris’ is derived from the Greek term meaning ‘the rung of a ladder’, and refers to the groups tree-trunk climbing habits. The species name ‘affins’, Latin for 'allied', refers to the species resemblance to the Red-browed Treecreeper (Climacteris erythrops).[10]

Subspecies

Two subspecies are recognised:

  • C. a. affinis Blyth, 1863 – Australia, east of Spencers Gulf (rump uppertail coverts and tail grey)
  • C. a. superciliosus North, 1895 – Australia, west of Spencers Gulf (rump, uppertail coverts and tail brown)[1][10]

Description and field identification

The White-browed Treecreeper is 14-16cm in length, has a wingspan of 22cm and weighs 21gm. Adult male plumage is mostly dark grey above (crown, neck, rump and uppertail) excluding the mantle and scapulars of which are brown and black sub-terminal tail-band. Facial plumage includes black lores, white tapered eyebrow and black and white streaked ear-coverts. The chin is white and throat brownish grey. The upper breast is grey and lower breast, belly, flanks and vent streaked black and white. Undertail coverts are barred black and white. Females are similar to males but with rufous stripe bordering the upper edge of the eyebrow and dull white streaking, tinged rufous, on the centre of the upper breast. In both sexes the bill is black, around 1.5-2cm long and is relatively straight and slender. The iris is dark brown and legs and feet black. Juveniles differ from adults with pale grey bill and both facial patterning and ear-covert streaking duller and less distinct.[4][10]

The White-browed Treecreeper has moderately long wedge shaped wings and square tail. Flight pattern over longer distances is undulated, involving brief bursts of flapping within long glides, during of which a buff wingbar is visible.[4]

Similar species

The Brown Treecreeper (Climacteris picumnus) is similar in appearance to the White-browed Treecreeper, however the Brown Treecreepers breast streaks are duller and ear covert streaking confined to rear coverts. In addition, Brown Treecreepers short shrill ‘peep’ calls differ greatly to that of the White-browed Treecreepers long ‘prrrpt’ insect-like calls.[10]

Distribution and habitat

White-browed Treecreepers inhabit arid and semi-arid regions across southern Australia, excluding Tasmania.[10] The two subspecies ranges do not overlap, C. a. affinis found east of the Spencer’s Gulf and C. a. superciliosus to the west.[1] White-browed Treecreepers inhabit a range of woodland and shrubland communities, dominated by either Acacia, Casuarina or Callitris species, with both dense and open understory's.[10]

White-browed Treecreepers are sedentary, pairs or groups actively defending relatively large territories (averaging 8.4 hectares in some regions) throughout the year.[1]

Ecology

Feeding

The White-browed Treecreeper is a scansorial (tree-trunk climbing) bark-foraging specialist, feeding upon a range of invertebrates (predominantly ants) gathered from on and beneath the bark of tree trunks and branches.[10] The climbing technique employed by the species is described as ‘inching’ by which the lower foot is lifted and brought to the level of the upper foot prior to the upper being moved higher.[11] Such a technique differs from some other scansorial birds which lift their feet from the substrate simultaneously in a hopping or hitching fashion.[11] Once White-browed Treecreepers reach the uppermost portions of a tree they glide down to a lower position on a nearby tree to recommence climbing.[10] The species also frequently forages on the ground among logs and leaf litter.[1]

White-browed Treecreepers forage alone, in small family groups or during winter within mixed-species assemblages comprising other insectivores.[1]

Feeding adaptations

White-browed Treecreepers exhibit a number of morphological traits, primarily of the legs, feet and toes, thought to represent scansorial bark-foraging adaptations. Such traits include increased toe length (increasing the span of the foot), long strongly curved claws (assisting the gripping of substrates), increased syndactyly of the front toes and reduced pads on the sole of the foot (reducing contact of the plantar surface of the foot to the substrate).[11] Additionally, Climacteris species are able to move the hind toe independently too that of the front toes due to a lack of some ligament within the foot. This enables finer adjustments of footings to be made.[4]

Breeding

White-browed Treecreepers breeding season varies across its range, commencing as early as July in the western parts of its range to August in the east, and continuing until November. White-browed treecreepers breed both as unassisted simple pairs or in cooperatively breeding units consisting of a breeding pair and 1-3 male offspring from previous years. Non-breeding male ‘helpers’ provide assistance with all nesting related activities, other than incubation and brooding (conducted by the female alone).[12]

White-browed Treecreepers build shallow saucer-shaped nests within tree hollows, made of bark fibres, grass, twigs and branchlets and line the nest with feathers, fur, vegetable down and wool.[4][1] The female lays a clutch of 1-3 pinkish-white eggs speckled reddish and purplish-brown, of which she incubates for 17-18 days.[12][4] Nestlings take approximately 25-26 days to fledge upon which they remain dependant on their parents and associated ‘helpers’ for food for up to 37 days.[1] Although up to two broods may be raised per season White-browed Treecreepers have low productivity, with an average of only 1.58 young fledged per breeding unit annually.[1]

Threats

Threats to the White-browed Treecreeper include habitat loss and fragmentation due to land clearing. Such threats have resulted in population declines and range contractions within some regions including Victoria, Australia, within which the species is now listed as Threatened under state legislation.[2][13] The White-browed Treecreeper has also been recognised as a species highly exposed to the effects of climate change.[14]

Conservation status

White-browed treecreepers are not listed as threatened on the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. However, their conservation status varies from state to state within Australia. For example:

  • The white-browed treecreeper is listed as threatened on the Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988).[13] Under this Act, an Action Statement for the recovery and future management of this species has been prepared.[15]
  • On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the white-browed treecreeper is listed as vulnerable.[16]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Radford, James (2002). Conservation ecology and breeding biology of the white-browed treecreeper, Climacteris affinis (PDF) (Ph. D thesis). Deakin University.
  2. ^ a b Radford, James Q.; Bennett, Andrew F. (2004). "Thresholds in landscape parameters: occurrence of the white-browed treecreeper Climacteris affinis in Victoria, Australia". Biological Conservation. 117 (4): 375–391. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2003.08.002. ISSN 0006-3207.
  3. ^ "Climacteris affinis: BirdLife International". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016-10-01. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2016-3.rlts.t22703571a93928370.en. Retrieved 2018-06-07.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g del Hoya, Josep; Elliot, Andrew; Sargatal, David (2007). Handbook of the birds of the world. Vol. 12. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-96553-42-6.
  5. ^ Barker, F. Keith; Barrowclough, George F.; Groth, Jeff G. (2002-02-07). "A phylogenetic hypothesis for passerine birds: taxonomic and biogeographic implications of an analysis of nuclear DNA sequence data". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 269 (1488): 295–308. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1883. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1690884. PMID 11839199.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  6. ^ a b Barker, F. Keith; Cibois, Alice; Schikler, Peter; Feinstein, Julie; Cracraft, Joel (2004-07-27). "Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (30): 11040–11045. doi:10.1073/pnas.0401892101. PMC 503738. PMID 15263073.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  7. ^ Ericson, Per GP; Klopfstein, Seraina; Irestedt, Martin; Nguyen, Jacqueline MT; Nylander, Johan AA (2014-01-15). "Dating the diversification of the major lineages of Passeriformes (Aves)". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 14 (1): 8. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-8. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 3917694. PMID 24422673.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  8. ^ Jønsson, Knud A.; Fabre, Pierre-Henri; Ricklefs, Robert E.; Fjeldså, Jon (2011-02-08). "Major global radiation of corvoid birds originated in the proto-Papuan archipelago". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (6): 2328–2333. doi:10.1073/pnas.1018956108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3038755. PMID 21262814.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  9. ^ a b Nguyen, Jacqueline M. T. (2016). "Australo-Papuan treecreepers (Passeriformes: Climacteridae) and a new species of sittella (Neosittidae: Daphoenositta) from the Miocene of Australia". Palaeontologia Electronica. 19 (1): 1–13. ISSN 1094-8074.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Handbook of Australian, New Zealand & Antarctic birds. Marchant, S., Higgins, P. J. (Peter Jeffrey), 1959-, Ambrose, S. J., Davies, S. J. J. F., Steele, W. K. (William K.). Melbourne: Oxford University Press. 1990–2006. ISBN 0195530683. OCLC 23753076.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date format (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  11. ^ a b c Orenstein, Ronald. (1977). Morphological Adaptations for Bark Foraging in Australian Treecreepers (Aves: Climacteridae) (PhD). University of Michigan.
  12. ^ a b Radford, James Q. (2004). "Breeding biology, adult survival and territoriality of the White-browed Treecreeper (Climacteris affinis) in north-west Victoria, Australia". Emu - Austral Ornithology. 104 (4): 305–316. doi:10.1071/mu04002. ISSN 0158-4197.
  13. ^ a b Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria
  14. ^ Climate change adaptation plan for Australian birds. Garnett, Stephen, 1955-, Franklin, Donald Charles,. Collingwood, Vic. ISBN 9780643108035. OCLC 864392667.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  15. ^ Department of Sustainability and Environment, Victoria
  16. ^ Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment (2007). Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria - 2007. East Melbourne, Victoria: Department of Sustainability and Environment. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-74208-039-0.
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