Bandung
Bandung | |
|---|---|
 The Pasupati Bridge on top of resident houses. | |
 Seal | |
| Nickname: Kota Kembang (City of Flowers) | |
| Motto: Bermartabat ('dignity') | |
| Province | West Java |
| Country | Indonesia |
| Government | |
| • Mayor | Dada Rosada |
| Elevation | 770 m (2,520 ft) |
| Population (2004) | |
| • Total | 2,510,982 |
| Time zone | UTC+7 (WIB) |
| Website | www.bandung.go.id |
- Bandung is also the name of a drink.
Bandung (IPA pron.: /bʌndʊŋ/) is the capital of West Java province in Indonesia, and the fourth largest city of the country. Located 768 m (2,520 ft) above sea level, Bandung has relatively year-around cooler temperature than most other Indonesian cities. The city lies on a river basin and surrounded by volcanic mountains. This topology provides the city with a good natural defense system, which was the primary reason of Dutch East Indies government's plan to move the colony capital from Batavia to Bandung.
The Dutch colonials first opened tea plantantions around the mountains in the eighteenth century, followed by a road construction connecting the plantation area to the capital (180 km or 112 miles to the northwest). The city was founded in 1906 and gradually developed itself into a resort city for the plantation owners. Luxurious hotels, restaurants, cafes and European boutiques were opened of which the city was dubbed as Parijs van Java.
After Indonesian independence, the city experienced a rapid development and urbanization that has transformed Bandung from idyllic town into a densed 15,000 people/km² metropolitan area, a living space for over 2 million people. Natural resources have been exploited excessively, particularly in the conversions of protected upland area into highland villa and real estates. Although the city has encountered many problems, ranging from waste disposal, floods to chaotic traffic system, Bandung however still has its charm to attract people flocking into the city, either as weekend travellers or living in.
Geography
Bandung, the capital of West Java province, is located about 180 km (112 miles) southeast of Jakarta. Its elevation is 768 metres (2,520 feet) above sea level and is surrounded by up to 2,400 m (7,874 ft) high Late Tertiary and Quarternary volcanic terrain.[1] The 400 km² flat of central Bandung plain is situated in the middle of 2,340.88 km² wide of the Bandung Basin; the basin comprises Bandung, the Cimahi satellite city, part of Bandung Regency, and part of Sumedang Regency.[2] The basin's main river is the Citarum; one of its branches, the Cikapundung, divides Bandung from north to south before it merges with Citarum in Karawang. The Bandung Basin is an important source of water for drinking water, irrigation and fisheries, and its 6,147 million m³ of groundwater is a major reservoir for the city.[2]
The northern part of the city is hillier than the rest; the distinguished truncated flat-peak shape of the Tangkuban Perahu volcano (Tangkuban Perahu literally means 'up-turned boat') can be seen from the city to the north. Long-term volcanic activity has created fertile andisol soil in the north, suitable for intensive rice, fruit, tea, tobacco and coffee plantations. In the south and east, alluvial soils deposited by the Cikapundung river are mostly found.
Geological data shows that the Bandung Basin is located on an ancient volcano, known as Mount Sunda, erected up to 3,000–4,000 metres (9,850–13,100 feet) during the Pleistocene age.[3] Two large scale eruptions took place; the first formed the basin and the other (est. 55,000 Before Present) blocked the Citarum river, turning the basin into a lake known as "the Great Lake of Bandung".[4] The lake drained away; the reason for which is the subject of ongoing debate among geologists.[5][6]
Due to its elevation, the climate in Bandung is cooler than most Indonesian cities and can be classified as humid; the average temperature is 23.6°C (74.5°F) throughout the year.[7] The average annual rainfall ranges from 1,000 millimetres in the central and southeast regions to 3,500 millimetres in the north of the city.[2] The wet season conforms with other Indonesian regions, around November to April.
History
The earliest reference to the city dates back to 1488, but archaeological findings suggest a type of Homo erectus species had lived on the banks of the Cikapundung River and around the old lake of Bandung.[8] During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Dutch East Indies Company (VOC) opened plantations in the Bandung area. A supply road connecting Batavia (now Jakarta), Bogor, Cianjur, Bandung, Sumedang and Cirebon was built in 1786. In 1809, Louis Napoleon, the ruler of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and its colonies, ordered the Dutch Indies Governor H.W. Daendels to increase the defensive systems of Java against the British from the Malaysian peninsula. Daendels built a road, stretching approximately 1,000 km (621 miles) from the west to the east coast of Java, and passing through Bandung.[9][10] In 1810, the road was laid down in Bandung and was named De Groote Postweg (or the 'main post road'), the present-day site of Asia-Afrika Street.
In 1880, the first major railroad between Batavia and Bandung was built,[11] boosting light industry in Bandung. Chinese who had previously never lived in the city flocked to help run facilities, services and selling vendor machines. The old Chinatown district in Bandung is still recognisable in the railroad station vicinity. In 1906, Bandung was given the status of gemeente (municipality) and then later as stadsgemeente (city municipality) in 1926.
In 1930s, the Dutch East Indies government considered moving the capital from Batavia to Bandung. R.A. Wiranatakusumah II, the chief administration of the Bandung regency at that time, moved its office from Krapyak, in the south, to a place near a pair of holy city wells (sumur Bandung), the present-day site of the city square (alun-alun). He built his dalem (palace), masjid agung (the grand mosque) and pendopo (public-official meeting place) in the classical orientation.[12] The pendopo faces Tangkuban Perahu mountain, which was believed to have a mystical ambience. In the meantime, the Dutch East Indies government built military barracks, the central government building (Gouvernments Bedrijven, the present-day Gedung Sate) and other government buildings. This plan, however, was cut short by World War II after which the Dutch were not able to re-established their colony.
The fertile area of the Parahyangan Mountains surrounding Bandung supports productive tea plantations. In the nineteenth century, Franz Junghuhn introduced the cinchona (kina) plant.[13] With its cooler elevated landscape, surrounded by major plantations, Bandung became an exclusive European resort area.[14] Rich plantation owners visited the city on weekends, attracting girls and businessmen from the capital, Batavia. Braga Street grew into a promenade street with cafes, restaurants and boutique shops. Two art-deco style hotels, Savoy Homann and Preanger, were built in the vicinity of the Concordia Society, a club house for the wealthy with a large ballroom and a theatre.[11] The nickname "Parijs van Java" was given to the city.
After the Indonesian Independence in 1945, Bandung was determined as the capital of West Java province. During the 1945–1949 war against the Dutch when they wanted to reclaim their colonies, Bandung was one of the heaviest battle places. The Dutch military commander set an ultimatum for the Indonesian combatants in Bandung to leave the city. In response, on 24 March 1946, much of the southern part of Bandung was deliberately set alight as the combatants left; an event known as the Bandung Lautan Api or 'Bandung Sea of Flame'.[15]
In 1955, the first Asian-African Conference was held in Bandung, attended by head of states representing twenty-nine countries and colonies from Asia and Africa. The conference venue was at the Gedung Merdeka, the former Concordia Society building. The conference announced 10 points of declaration on world peace promotion and oppositions against colonialism, known as the Declaration of Bandung, which followed by wave of nationalism movements around the globe and remapped the world politics.[16] The conference was also the first international conference of colored people in the history of mankind.[17] Richard Wright in his book, The Color Curtain, captured the epic meanings of the conference for people of color around the world.[17] Even black freedom movement activists in the United States referred Bandung as Afro-Asian solidarity in 1960s.[18]
In 1987, the city boundary was expanded with the Greater Bandung (Bandung Raya) plan; a relocation of higher concentration development outside the city in an attempt to dilute some of population in the old city. During its development, however, the city core is often uprooted, old faces are torn down, lot sizes regrouped, and what was idyllic residence is bustling chain supermarkets and rich banks.[14]
Administration
| List of Mayors | |
|---|---|
 Dutch-Indies
| |
| E.A. Maurenbrecher (exofficio) | 1906-1907 |
| R.E. Krijboom (exofficio) | 1907-1908 |
| J.A. van Der Ent (exofficio) | 1909-1910 |
| J.J. Verwijk (exofficio) | 1910-1912 |
| C.C.B. van Vlenier (exofficio) | 1912-1913 |
| B. van Bijveld (exofficio) | 1913-1920 |
| B. Coops | 1920-1921 |
| S.A. Reitsma | 1921-1928 |
| B. Coops | 1928-1934 |
| Ir. J.E.A. van Volsorgen Kuhr | 1934-1936 |
| Mr. J.M. Wesselink | 1936-1942 |
| N. Beets | 1942-1942 |
 Japanese Occupation
| |
| Raden A. Atma dit Nata | 1942-1945 |
 Indonesia
| |
| Ir. Ukar Bratakusumah | 1946-1949 |
| R. Enoch | 1949-1956 |
| R. Priatna Kusumah | 1956-1966 |
| R. Didi Jukardi | 1966-1968 |
| Hidayat Sukarmadijaya | 1968-1971 |
| R. Otje Djundjunan | 1971-1976 |
| Ucu Junaedi | 1976-1978 |
| R. Husein Wangsaatmaja | 1978-1983 |
| Ateng Wahyudi | 1983-1993 |
| Wahyu Hamidjaja | 1993-1998 |
| Aa Tarmana | 1998-2003 |
| Dada Rosada | 2003-... |
| Source: official website[19] | |
The city area in 1906 was only 1,922 hectare; it has been expanded several times until the 1987 expansion into 16,729.65 hectare (over 800 times).[7] City administration is divided into 26 subdistricts (kecamatan) headed by camat and 139 villages (kelurahan) headed by lurah. The head of the city administration is a mayor (walikota). Since 2005, mayors are directly elected by the city residents, while previously mayors were nominated and selected by the city council members or known as the Regional People's Representative Council (DPRD). As of 2003, the total number of city administration personnel, including the major, is 20,163.[7]
Demographics
Architecture
Bandung is renowned for its large stock of Dutch colonial architecture; most notably the tropical Art Deco architectural style. Henri Maclaine Pont is among the first Dutch architects who realized how important to combine each architectural style with culture of local people. He stressed that modern architecture should be evolved from local history and native elements.[20] In 1920, Pont planned and designed buildings for the first technical university in the Dutch East Indies, Technische Hogeschool te Bandung (the present-day Institut Teknologi Bandung), after which he was named as a professor in architecture at the university. A striking local Javanese roof style is noticeably seen on top of the campus' ceremonial hall, embedded in his artwork.[20]
In the same year, another Dutch architect, J Gerber, designed Gouverments Bedrijven (Government Companies) in line with the colonial government plan to move the capital from Batavia to Bandung. The building is an example of harmonical mixture between West and East architectural styles, particularly the Italian Renaissance style of arch structures in the west wing and Thailand's pagoda-like structures in the middle section.[citation needed] The building is known as Gedung Sate, named after the distinguished small satay shaped structure on the roof, and used as the head office of West Java provincial government and West Java's house of representative.
The modern and native architectural blending was followed by several Dutch architects that have shaped Bandung architectural landmarks. C.P.W. Schoemaker was one of celebrated architects at that time with many artworks in Bandung, including Villa Isola (1932), Hotel Preanger (1929), regional military headquarter (1918), Gedung Merdeka (1921) and ITB Rectorate Building (1925).[20]
Culture
The West Java people are called the Sundanese, endowed with language and traditions unique to that of the rest of Java. The Sundanese language has 3 distinct hierarchies, starting from the lowly harsh (kasar), middle, and soft (lemes) Sundanese. Many Sundanese words have been adopted into Indonesian, although many of its contributions consist of profanities. Pajajaran Kingdom was the oldest kingdom in the region. The West Java region is also named as Parahyangan or the "Land of the Gods". In its later history, the region fell under influence of the Central Java kingdoms, reflected in elite Sundanese having borrowed much of its vocabulary and grammar from elite Javanese.
In Indonesia, the Sundanese people are known to be more easy going and less formal in their temperament than their distant relatives from Central Java and East Java. This is reflected in the grammar of the Sundanese language, which has many forms allowing for meaningless light banter. Interestingly, Sundanese has contributed many swear words to the Indonesian language spoken in Jakarta.
The most popular traditional musical instrument is angklung, made of parallel bamboo tubes tuned to specific frequencies with a hammer and is shaken to produce certain notes. Music is performed by a choir of angklung players, each of whom are responsible for sounding certain notes. Its melody is only slightly different from that of Central Java's gamelan ensembles.
Tourism
Bandung has served for popular weekend-break destination for people living in Jakarta for many reasons. The cooler climate of highland plantation area, the varieties of food, the cheaper fashion shops located in factory outlets and distros, and the friendliness of local people have become the main attraction of the city.[21]
In the 1990s, local designers opened denim clothing stores along Cihampelas and since then, Bandung is nicknamed "Tourist Shopping City" (Kota Wisata Belanja). It was a huge success as now the-then residential street has been fully transformed into a "jeans street". The city attracts people from other big cities to buy local fashion wears, as they are cheaper than branded items.[22]
The city gained more shoppers to come, as textile factories in the outskirt of Bandung also opened a fashion store that sells their products directly from the factory. The products are sold cheaper than ordinary shops and they are tagged as sisa export (rejected or over-produced export quality items). These shops are called factory outlets. Again, it was a big success and now even many factory outlets are scattered inside the city, with the same tags and prices but without the factory nearby.[23] Factory outlets are concentrated along Riau and Dago streets. Some can be found along Buah Batu street.
There are many food varieties in Bandung. Local traditional foods include peuyeum (fermented cassava), "batagor" (fried tofu and fish), and "martabak" (salted = fried meat/chicken stuffed egg or sweet = baked sweet flour with chocolate/cheese). International food is also easy to be found in many restaurants. Sundanese restaurants are scattered around the city.
Bandung also offers nature tourism. Some of them are hiking to the top of the flipped-boat shape mount Tangkuban Perahu, camping around the lake of Patenggang in the middle of tea plantation, and trekking from the end of Dago street to Maribaya, Lembang through the water reservoir park of Juanda.
Sports
Bandung is the home town of the soccer team Persib. Another soccer team Persikab is based in neighbouring city of Cimahi, part of Bandung Regency. The most popular football stadium is Siliwangi Stadium.
Other popular sports in Bandung include badminton and basketball. The roads leading up to Lembang and Dago are popular routes for mountain cycling during the weekend. In the hillside around Bandung, there are a couple of golf courses.
Transport
The main gateway to the city is by road transport. An intercity highway, named as Cipularang toll road, connecting Jakarta, Karawang, Purwakarta, Padalarang and Bandung, has recently been completed in May 2005. It is currently the fastest way to go to Bandung from the capital. Driving time is about 1.5 to 2 hours on average.
Bandung can be accessed through normal roads. From Jakarta, there are 2 options: the Puncak route (Jakarta-Cianjur/Sukabumi-Bandung) or the Subang route (Jakarta-Cikampek-Subang-Lembang-Bandung). From eastern part of the cities (Cirebon, Tasikmalaya and Central Java province), Bandung can be accessed through the main provincial road.
The Pasupati bridge recently opened to the public, relieving traffic jams in the city for east-west transport. The 2.8 km cable-stayed bridge lies through the valley of Cikapundung. It is 30 to 60 metres wide and after extensive delays, its construction finally completed in June 2005, following financial investment from Kuwait[24].
There is no rapid mass transit system in Bandung. The primary means of public transportation is by minibus, called angkot (from angkutan=transportation and kota=city). They serve certain routes throughout the city and are operated privately. There is no way to find exact angkot routes, except by asking the operators. Locals only learn routes for each angkot by heart. Taxis are available, while city-owned buses, called DAMRI, operates on larger relatively long routes. Bandung has 2 intercity bus terminals: Leuwipanjang, serving buses from the west, and Cicaheum, serving buses from the east.
The only airport in Bandung is Husein Sastranegara, serving flights from other major cities in Indonesia and also international services from Singapore and Kuala Lumpur. The airport is located nearby the Dirgantara aerospace complex. A railroad track connects Bandung to Jakarta and Cianjur to the west, and Tasikmalaya and Cilacap to the east. It is also the major means of transportation for people living in suburb areas of Cimahi, Padalarang, Rancaekek, Cicalengka and Cileunyi.
Education
There are hundreds of public and private schools in Bandung. Like in other Indonesian cities, Bandung has several state-funded and administered junior high and high schools, called State Junior High Schools (SMPN) and State High Schools (SMAN), respectively. Privately administered schools have also been around for many years.
At least 16 universities — 3 of them are state-owned universities — and 45 professional schools are scattered throughout the city. From social sciences, technology until tourism education can be found in one of those universities. The oldest technical university, Institut Teknologi Bandung, established in 1920 as Bandung Technisch Hogeschool in Dutch, has been attached as a trademark of the city's high education status. Therefore, the city has attracted hundreds of students from all over Indonesia.
Economy
Bandung has nearly 50 higher educational institutions. Creative-based culture has shaped the basis of Bandung economy. The once quiet residential district of Dago has become an important business and entertainment centre. Chic cafes and restaurants are spreading out along Dago Street. In the early 1990s Cihampelas Street became a popular clothing store location.
The distro sell stylish non-trademarked products, made by local designers. Books, indie label records, magazines, fashion products and other accessories are typical distro products. After their products receive large teenagers attention, then these local designers make their own clothing company. Now, there are more than 200 local brand names in Bandung. Distro distance itself from factory outlet in term of its philosophy. Distros come from individual designers and young entrepreneurs, while factory outlet products come from a garment factory[25].
Environmental issues
The north of the city serves as a water reservoir for Bandung's 2 million people, however, the area has seen much residential development. Several attempts to reserve this area have been made, including the creation of reserves, such as the Juanda National Park and Puncrut, but the development continues. The real danger has come in the form of several floodings in Bandung's south[26].
In the middle of 2006, Bandung faced another environmental disaster, as the city's land fill site reevaluated after a landslide in 2005.[27] Collection of 8,000 m3/day domestic garbage piled up, causing air pollution, spreading of diseases, and water contamination. The provincial government eventually stepped in to solve the garbage issues.[28][29]
Sister relationships
Bandung has sister relationships with a number of towns worldwide:
Brunswick, Germany (since 1980s)
Fort Worth, USA (since 1990s)
Suwon, South Korea (Since 2003)
Awards
- The Dirtiest of Indonesia's metropilitan areas[30].
- 1997: Adipura Award — for the achievement of the most beautiful city in Indonesia.
The Adipura consists of a trophy and an award.
References
- ^ W.A. van der Kaars and M.A.C. Dam (1995). "A 135,000-year record of vegetational and climatic change from the Bandung area, West-Java, Indonesia". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 117 (1–2): 55–72. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(94)00121-N.
- ^ a b c Setiawan Wangsaatmaja, Arief D. Sutadian and Maria A.N. Prasetiati. "Groundwater Resource Management in Bandung". Sustainable Groundwater Management in Asian Cities. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
{{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter|booktitle=ignored (|book-title=suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "iges" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ M.N. Kartadinata, M. Okuno, T. Nakamura and T. Kobayashi (2002). "Eruptive History of Tangkuban Perahu Volcano, West Java, Indonesia: A Preliminary Report" (PDF). Journal of Geography. 111 (3): 404–409. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Dam, M.A.C. (1994). "The Late Quaternary Evolution of the Bandung Basin, West Java, Indonesia". Ph. D. Thesis. Universiteit van Amsterdam.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ van Bemmelen, R.W. (1949). The Geology of Indonesia, Vol. 1A, General Geology.
- ^ "Sangiangtikoro is not The Leaking Point of The Old Bandung Lake" (in Indonesian). Pikiran Rakyat. 2005-10-27. Retrieved 2006-07-20.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ a b c "Bandung Dalam Angka (Bandung in Numbers)" (Press release) (in Indonesian). Bureau of Statistics. 2003. Retrieved 2007-01-15.
{{cite press release}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ B. Brahmayanto, E. Yulianto and Sudjatmiko (2001). "On the geomorphological development of Pawon Cave, west of Bandung, and the evidence finding of prehistoric dwelling cave". JTM. Retrieved 2008-08-21.
- ^ "Pramoedya sheds light on dark side of Daendels highway". The Jakarta Post. 2006-01-08.
- ^ Peter .J.M Nas; Pratiwo (2001). "Java and De Groote Postweg, La Grande Route, The High Military Road" (PDF). University of Leiden.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|1=(help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Soemardi, Ahmad R. (2004). "Creative culture and urban planning:The Bandung Experience" (PDF). The eleventh International Planning History Conference 2004. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
{{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter|booktitle=ignored (|book-title=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "creative" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ Kunto, Haryanto (1984). Wajah Bandung Tempoe Doeloe. Granesia.
- ^ "If Only Junghuhn Knows How Cinchona in Indonesia Becomes..." (in Indonesian). Pikiran Rakyat. 2004-06-07. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ a b "An Extremely Brief Urban History of Bandung". Institute of Indonesian Architectural Historian. Retrieved 2006-08-20. Cite error: The named reference "brief" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Sitaresmi, Ratnayu. "Social History of Bandung Lautan Api (Bandung Sea of Fire) [[24 March]] [[1946]]" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-08-22.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help); URL–wikilink conflict (help) - ^ Jason Parker (2006). "Cold War II: The Eisenhower Administration, the Bandung Conference, and the Reperiodization of the Postwar Era". Diplomatic History. 30 (5): 867–892. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.2006.00582.x.
- ^ a b Richard Wright (1995). The Color Curtain: A Report on the Bandung Conference. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 087805748X.
- ^ A. Burton, A. Espiritu and F.C. Wilkins (2006). "Introduction: The Fate of Nationalisms in the Age of Bandung". Radical History Review (95): 145–148. doi:10.1215/01636545-2006-95-145.
- ^ "Sekilas Kota Bandung (About Bandung)". Official Website (in Indonesian). Bandung City Government. Retrieved 2007-01-15.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ a b c W. Wangsadinata and T.K. Djajasudarma (1995). "Architectural Design Consideration for Modern Buildings in Indonesia" (PDF). INDOBEX Conf. on Building Construction Technology for the Future: Construction Technology for Highrises & Intelligence Buildings. Jakarta. Retrieved 2007-01-18.
{{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter|booktitle=ignored (|book-title=suggested) (help) - ^ Java Experience http://travel.ciao.co.uk/Java_Experience_5297272_5
- ^ Asia Travel http://www.asiatravel.com/bandinfo.html
- ^ The Lively Pulse of Bandung http://www.thingsasian.com/goto_article/article.2543.html
- ^ "Kuwait invested USD 1.5 billion in Indonesia" (in Indonesian). 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2006-08-23.
{{cite news}}: Unknown parameter|pubisher=ignored (|publisher=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ "From Indie to Magic" (in Indonesian). Kompas. 2003-08-22. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Fahmudin, Agus. "Evaluation of Flood Mitigation Function of Several Land Use Systems in Selected Areas of West Java, Indonesia" (PDF). Japan / OECD Expert Meeting on Land Conservation Indicators. OECD.
{{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter|booktitle=ignored (|book-title=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ SP 18 May 2006 http://www.sp18.com/2006/05/
- ^ "Trash in Bandung Fears Uncollected" (in Indonesian). Pikiran Rakyat. 2005-02-23.
{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ "From Bandung Ocean of Flame to the Ocean of Trash" (in Indonesian). Kompas. 2005-03-25.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ "Bandung and Bekasi the Dirtiest Metropolitan" (in Indonesian). Antara. 2006-08-21.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
External links
