Draft:Kashmiri Nationalism

Kashmiri Nationalism is a socio-political ideology and movement centered around the desire for greater autonomy, self-determination, or independence for the Kashmiri people, who predominantly reside in the region of Kashmir. The movement is deeply rooted in historical grievances, cultural identity, and complex geopolitical dynamics involving India, Pakistan, and China-administered territories.

Kashmiri nationalism can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by efforts among Kashmiri intellectuals, activists, and leaders to assert a distinct Kashmiri identity and seek political autonomy from external rulers. During this period, Kashmiris began to articulate grievances against discriminatory policies and perceived cultural and economic exploitation under Dogra rule, which lasted from the mid-19th century until India's independence in 1947. Intellectuals contributed to the early discourse on Kashmiri identity and political rights, advocating for social reform and educational empowerment among Kashmiri Muslims. The movement gained momentum with protests and uprisings, such as the 1931 agitation against the Dogra monarchy, which marked a significant moment of collective resistance and demands for political representation. These early expressions of Kashmiri nationalism laid the groundwork for subsequent movements advocating for greater autonomy or independence, reflecting a desire among Kashmiris to assert their cultural heritage and political aspirations amidst evolving regional and international dynamics.

History

The history of Kashmiri identity and nationalism spans centuries, reflecting a diverse cultural and religious heritage. Ancient Kashmir was a hub of Hindu and Buddhist civilizations, with influences from Central Asia and Persia shaping its cultural and political landscape. Muslim rule was established in the region in the 14th century, leading to a predominantly Muslim population by the time of British colonial rule.

Under Dogra Rule

In 1846, the Treaty of Amritsar marked the formal beginning of the Dogra rule under the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, which remained under the suzerainty of the British Empire until India's independence in 1947. Kashmiri nationalism arose primarily in response to the perceived injustices and discriminatory policies under Dogra rule, which lasted from the 1846 until India's independence in 1947. The Dogra Maharajas, predominantly Hindu rulers, imposed policies that favored their own community and marginalized Kashmiri Muslims, who constituted the majority of the population. These policies included unequal access to education, limited employment opportunities, and economic exploitation through heavy taxation on Muslim agricultural communities. This socio-economic and political marginalization fueled grievances and a sense of injustice among Kashmiri Muslims, laying the groundwork for the emergence of Kashmiri nationalism.

The discrimination against Kashmiri Muslims and the perceived favoritism towards Kashmiri Pandits under Dogra rule culminated in a significant demonstration in 1931, centered around the trial of Abdul Qadeer, an employee of an English army officer, accused of sedition by the Dogra authorities. Thousands of Kashmiri Muslims gathered outside the Srinagar Central Jail, where Qadeer was held, demanding fair treatment and an end to oppressive policies. The peaceful demonstration turned violent when police forces opened fire on the crowd, resulting in the deaths of 21 Muslim protesters. The crowds buried the bodies in the graveyard of the Shrine of Khwaja Bahawuddin Naqshbandi (Ziyarat Naqshband Sahab) in Srinagar, which has since come to be known as Mazar-e-Shuhada or the Martyrs' Graveyard. This incident galvanized public sentiment against Dogra rule and became a symbol of resistance against socio-political oppression in Kashmir. The July 13 protests of 1931, known as "Kashmir Martyrs' Day" or "Youm-e-Shuhada-e-Kashmir" in Kashmiri history and commemoration, are considered a pivotal moment in Kashmiri history, marking the beginning of organized movements for political autonomy and independence from external governance.

Post Independence of India and Pakistan

The partition of British India into India and Pakistan created a complex situation for princely states like Kashmir, which had the option to accede to either dominion or remain independent. Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, chose to accede to India in October 1947, sparking immediate conflict with Pakistan. The unresolved status of Kashmir led to the First Indo-Pakistani War (1947-1948), resulting in the division of the region into territories administered by India (Jammu and Kashmir) and Pakistan (Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan). The subsequent decades saw recurring tensions and military conflicts between India and Pakistan over Kashmir, including wars in 1965 and 1999, as well as numerous skirmishes and periods of insurgency within Indian-administered Kashmir. The Line of Control (LoC), established in 1972 following the Simla Agreement, continues to separate Indian and Pakistani-controlled territories.

The Indo-Pak wars have profoundly affected Kashmiris, leading to enduring challenges and shaping the course of Kashmiri nationalism and aspirations for self-determination. These wars, notably in 1947-48, 1965, and 1999, have resulted in significant human suffering, displacement, and loss of life among Kashmiri civilians caught in the crossfire. The conflict has disrupted daily life, hindered economic development, and exacerbated social tensions. Moreover, the wars have polarized Kashmiri society, with differing views on whether to align with India, Pakistan, or pursue an independent path. The prolonged military presence and security measures imposed during and after these conflicts have fueled grievances and strengthened calls for greater autonomy or independence among Kashmiris, who seek to assert their political rights and cultural identity in the face of external dominance and conflict-driven realities. The ongoing geopolitical tensions and unresolved territorial disputes continue to shape Kashmir's political landscape, contributing to a complex environment where aspirations for self-determination and national identity remain central to the Kashmiri struggle for peace and stability.

Popular Organizations

In Azad Jammu and Kashmir

Azad Jammu and Kashmir, under Pakistan's administration, has seen the rise of several prominent political and militant organizations advocating for Kashmiri rights and self-determination. The All Parties Hurriyat Conference in AJK serves as a coalition of political and religious groups striving for a plebiscite to determine Kashmir's political future according to UN resolutions. Other groups include the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front, which historically advocated for an independent Kashmir but later shifted focus to regional autonomy within the framework of Pakistan.

In Jammu and Kashmir

Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir has witnessed the emergence of various political parties and separatist organizations seeking greater autonomy or outright independence from India. The All Parties Hurriyat Conference, distinct from its AJK counterpart, represents a coalition of separatist groups advocating for dialogue with India and Pakistan while emphasizing Kashmiri representation in any negotiated settlement. The Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front, founded by Amanullah Khan and Maqbool Bhat in the 1970s, initially pursued an independent Kashmir but later evolved to support the region's right to self-determination.

Other significant groups in JK include the Hizbul Mujahideen, a militant organization formed in the late 1980s that operates primarily in Indian-administered Kashmir, advocating for Kashmiri independence or accession to Pakistan through armed struggle. The Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed are militant groups with origins in Pakistan, operating in Kashmir and supporting the region's accession to Pakistan.

Current Status and Challenges

As of the early 21st century, Kashmir remains one of the world's most militarized zones, with India deploying a large number of security forces to maintain control over the region. Human rights organizations have documented allegations of abuses by security forces, including extrajudicial killings, disappearances, and torture, leading to widespread unrest and periodic protests.

India maintains its position that Kashmir is an integral part of its territory, while Pakistan supports the right to self-determination for Kashmiris as outlined in UN resolutions. On August 5, 2019 Article 370 and Article 35A were revoked by the Indian government, which abolished the special autonomous status of Jammu and Kashmir, leading to significant changes in governance. The decision aimed to fully integrate Jammu and Kashmir into the Indian Union, thereby applying all Indian laws uniformly across the region and removing barriers to investment and development. According to the Indian government, the move was intended to promote socio-economic development, enhance security measures, and provide equal opportunities to residents of Jammu and Kashmir. However, the revocation sparked widespread protests and concerns among Kashmiri residents and regional leaders, who viewed it as an erosion of their political autonomy and cultural identity. In response, new militant organizations such as, People's Anti-Fascist Front and The Resistance Front, emerged in the region, challenging the Indian government's actions and contributing to ongoing unrest and security challenges in Kashmir.

International attention remains focused on Kashmir, with calls for humanitarian intervention, dialogue, and mediation by global bodies and human rights organizations. The United Nations has repeatedly urged India and Pakistan to engage in meaningful dialogue to resolve the Kashmir dispute peacefully and in accordance with the wishes of the Kashmiri people.