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Digital divide

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The term digital divide refers to the gap between those people with effective access to digital and information technology and those without access to it. It includes the imbalances in physical access to technology as well as the imbalances in resources and skills needed to effectively participate as a digital citizen. In other words, it’s the unequal access by some members of the society to information and communications technology, and the unequal acquisition of related skills. Groups often discussed in the context of a digital divide include socioeconomic (rich/poor), racial (majority/minority), generational (young/old) or geographical (urban/rural). The term global digital divide refers to differences in technology access between countries.

Origins of the term

The term initially referred to gaps in ownership of computers between groups.[1][2] The term came into regular usage in the mid-1990s. President of the United States Bill Clinton and his Vice President Al Gore used the term in a 1996 speech in Knoxville,[3] though the term had appeared in several news articles and political speeches as early as 1995.[4] Larry Irving, a former United States head of the National Telecommunications Infrastructure Administration (NTIA) at the Department of Commerce, Assistant Secretary of Commerce and technology adviser to the Clinton Administration, noted that a series of NTIA surveys (1995), (1998), (1999), and (2000) were “catalysts for the popularity, ubiquity, and redefinition” of the term, and he used the term in a series of later reports.[4] Since the start of the George W. Bush Administration, the NTIA reports (2002)(2004) have tended to focus less on gaps and divides and more on the steady growth of broadband access, especially amongst groups formerly believed to be on the wrong side of the digital divide.

Current usage

There are various definitions of the term "digital divide". Bharat Mehra defines it simply as “the troubling gap between those who use computers and the internet and those who do not”.[5]

The term initially referred to gaps in the ownership of, or regular access to, a computer. As Internet access came to be seen as a central aspect of computing, the term's usage shifted to encompass gaps in not just computers but also access to the Internet. Recently, some have used the term to refer to gaps in broadband network access.[2] The term can mean not only unequal access to computer hardware, but also inequalities between groups of people in the ability to use information technology fully.[6]

Due to the range of criteria which can be used to assess the imbalance, and the lack of detailed data on some aspects of technology usage, the exact nature of the digital divide is both contextual and debatable. Criteria often used to distinguish between the 'haves' and the 'have nots' of the digital divide tend to focus on access to hardware, access to the internet, and details relating to both categories. Some scholars fear that these discussions might be discouraging the creation of Internet content that addresses the needs of minority groups that make up the "have nots," as they are portrayed to be technophobic charity cases that lack the desire to adopt new technologies on their own.[7]

The discussion on digital divide often are tied with other concepts. Lisa Servon argued in 2002 that the digital divide "is a symptom of a larger and more complex problem -- the problem of persistent poverty and inequality".[8] As described by Mehra (2004), the four major components that contribute to digital divide are “socioeconomic status, with income, educational level, and race among other factors associated with technological attainment”.[5]

Recognition of digital divide as an immense problem has led scholars, policy makers, and the public to understand the “potential of the internet to improve everyday life for those on the margins of society and to achieve greater social equity and empowerment”.[5]

Digital divide and education

One area of significant focus was school computer access; in the 1990s, rich schools were much more likely to provide their students with regular computer access. In the late 1990s, rich schools were much more likely to have internet access.[citation needed] In the context of schools, which have consistently been involved in the discussion of the divide, current formulations of the divide focus more on how (and whether) computers are used by students, and less on whether there are computers or internet connections.[citation needed]

The E-rate program (officially the Schools and Libraries Program of the Universal Service Fund), authorized in 1996 and implemented in 1997, directly addressed the technology gap between rich and poor schools by allocating money from telecommunications taxes to poor schools without technology resources. Though the program faced criticism and controversy in its methods of disbursement, it did provide over 100,000 schools with additional computing resources, and internet connectivity.[citation needed]

Recently, discussions of a digital divide in school access have broadened to include technology related skills and training in addition to basic access to computers and internet access.[citation needed]

Technology offers a unique opportunity to extend learning support beyond the classroom, something that has been difficult to do until now. “The variety of functions that the internet can serve for the individual user makes it “unprecedentedly malleable” to the user’s current needs and purposes”.[9]

Global digital divide

Main article: Global digital divide

Another key dimension of the digital divide is the global digital divide, reflecting existing economic divisions in the world. This global digital divide widens the gap in economic divisions around the world. Countries with a wide availability of internet access can advance the economics of that country on a local and global scale. In today's society, jobs and education are directly related to the internet[citation needed]. In countries where the internet and other technologies are not accessible, education is suffering, and uneducated people cannot compete in the global economy[citation needed]. This leads to poor countries suffering greater economic downfall and richer countries advancing their education and economy[citation needed]. However, when dealing with the global aspect of digital divide there are several factors that lead to digital divide. For example, country of residence, ethnicity, gender, age, educational attainment, and income levels are all factors of the global aspects of digital divide.[10][page needed] In addition, a survey shows that in 15 Western European countries females, manual workers, elderly, and the less educated have less internet access than males, professional, the young, and the well educated”.[11] The digital divide is a term used to refer to the gap between people who have access to the internet and those that do not. It can also refer to the skills people have – the divide between peoples who are at ease using technology to access and analyse information and those who are not.

Digital divide worldwide

China: see Digital divide in the People's Republic of China
Europe: European Union study from 2005 conduced in 14 European countries and focused on the issue of digital divide found that within the EU,[12] the digital divide is primarily a matter of age and education. Among the young or educated the proportion of computer or Internet users is much higher than with the old or uneducated. Digital divide is also higher in rural areas. The study found that the presence of children in a household increases the chance of having a computer or Internet access, and that small businesses are catching up with larger enterprises when it comes to Internet access. The study also notes that "Despite increasing levels of ICT usage in all sections of society, the divide is not being bridged."
United States: According to a July 2007 Pew Internet & American Life report, "47% of Americans have a broadband connection at home," an increase of 5% in one year.[13] Digital divide is a common subject in US politics and various government policies

Digital divide, e-democracy and e-governance

Main articles: e-democracy and e-governance

The theoretical concepts of e-democracy are still in early development, but many scholars agree that blogs (web logs), wikis and mailing lists may have significant effects in broadening the way democracy operates.[14] There is, as yet, no consensus among scholars about the possible outcomes of this revolution;[14] it has so far shown promise in improving electoral administration and reducing fraud and disenfranchisement; particularly positive has been the reception of e-government services related to online delivery of government services, with portals (such as United States USA.gov in English and GobiernoUSA.gov in Spanish) used as intermediaries between the government and the citizen, replacing the need for people to queue in traditional offices.[15]

One of the main problems associated with the digital divide as applied to a liberal democracy is the capacity to participate in the new public space, the cyberspace - as in the extreme case, exclusively computer-based democratic participation (deliberation forums, online voting, etc) could mean that no access meant no vote. Therefore, there is a risk that some social groups - those without adequate access to or knowledge of IT - will be under-represented (or others over-represented) in the policy formation processes and this would be incompatible with the equality principles of democracy.[15]

Proponents of the open content, free software, and open access social movements believe that these movements help equalize access to digital tools and information.[citation needed]

Overcoming the digital divide

Projects like One Laptop per Child and 50x15 offer a partial solution to the global digital divide; these projects tend to rely heavily upon open standards and free open source software. The OLPC XO-1 is an inexpensive laptop computer intended to be distributed to children in developing countries around the world,[16] to provide them with access to knowledge. Programmer and free software advocate Richard Stallman has highlighted the importance of free software among groups concerned with the digital divide such as the World Summit on the Information Society.[17]

Organizations such as Geekcorps, EduVision [18] and Inveneo [19] also help to overcome the digital divide. They often do so through the use of education systems that draw on information technology. The technology they employ often includes low-cost laptops/subnotebooks, handhelds (eg Simputer, E-slate, ...), tablet PCs, Mini-ITX PCs [20] and low-cost WiFi-extending technology as cantennas and WokFis [21]. In addition, other information technology material usable in the classroom can also be made diy to lower expenses. This includes projectors, ... [22][23]

In Digital Nation, Anthony G. Wilhelm calls on politicians to develop a national ICT agenda.[6]

Yet another solution is to try to better understand the lifestyle of a minority or marginalized community.[24] In doing this, researchers can figure out “what is meaningful to them [minorities and marginalized users] and how they use (or do not use) different forms of the internet for meeting their objectives”.[25] Furthermore, “a need for a re-examination of questions based on traditional ways of looking at people, their social dynamics, and their interactions with technology”.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). Additionally, “One strategy is to transfer goal-setting, decision making, and choice-determining processes into the hands of the disadvantaged users in order that they ‘fit’ internet into their daily lives in ways that they themselves consider to be meaningful”.[26]

International cooperation between governments have begun, aiming at dealing with the global digital divide. For example, in an attempt to bridge this digital divide, an agreement between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the Egyptian government emerged. The USAID funded state-of-the-art equipment for Egyptian education, their brilliance of knowledge in using such equipment caused such equipment to increase in use throughout the years. Now, Egyptian society is more computer literate and knowledgeable about computers than they used to be. Nonetheless it's a sign of progress that such attempts at bridging the digital divide are seriously being made. [27] Additional participants in such endeavors include the United Nations Global Alliance for ICT and Development and the Digital alliance Foundation.[28][29]

The United Nations is aiming to raise awareness of the divide by way of the World Information Society Day which takes place yearly on May 17.[30]

One organization in the United States is seeking to close the digital divide in America through a national initiative called Internet for Everyone (InternetforEveryone.org). Internet for Everyone, launched in 2008 and supported by industry leaders such as Larry Lessig, law professor at Stanford, and founder of Creative Commons; Vint Cerf, chief technology evangelist at Google (Nasdaq: GOOG); Jonathan Zittrain, co-founder, Berkman Center for Internet & Society; and Jonathan Adelstein, FCC Commissioner, seeks to provide Internet for every American citizen without the help of government. [31]

Criticism

The existence of a digital divide is not universally recognized. Compaine (2001) argues it is a perceived gap. Technology gaps are relatively transient; hence the digital divide should soon disappear in any case. The knowledge of computers will become less important as they get smarter and easier to use. In the future people will not need high-tech skills to access the Internet and participate in e-commerce or e-democracy. Thus Compaine argues that a digital divide "is not the issue to expend substantial amounts or funds nor political capital".[2]

See also

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: The Information Age
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Information and Communication Technologies for Poverty Alleviation
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Internet Governance

lisi

Notes

  1. ^ Carrie Bickner, Down By Law. Retrieved on 22 November 2007
  2. ^ a b c Compaine, The Digital Divide, Preface, p. xi-xvi
  3. ^ Clinton Presidential Center, Remarks by President and VP in Knoxville TN
  4. ^ a b Kate Williams, What is the digital divide?, working paper, University of Michigan, 2001
  5. ^ a b c Mehra et al, 2004, p.782
  6. ^ a b Anthony G. Wilhelm, Digital Nation: Towards an inclusive information society, MIT Press, 2004, ISBN 0262232383, p.133-134
  7. ^ Young, 2001 p.1
  8. ^ Lisa Servon, 2002, p.2
  9. ^ Bargh & McKenna, 2001, p. 577
  10. ^ Cheung, 2004 [page needed]
  11. ^ Cheung, 2004, p.63
  12. ^ The digital divide in Europe, Eurostat, Statistics in Focus, Issue number 38/2005
  13. ^ Horrigan and Smith, Home Broadband Adoption 2007 Report
  14. ^ a b See various papers collected in Peter Shane, Democracy Online: The Prospects for Political Renewal Through the Internet, Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0415948657
  15. ^ a b Kieron O'Hara, David Stevens, Inequality.com, 2006, Oneworld, ISBN 1851684506, p.300-301
  16. ^ BBC NEWS | Technology | Portables to power PC industry
  17. ^ Stallman, 2006 speech transcript
  18. ^ Eduvision as organization addressing digital divide
  19. ^ Inveneo as organization addressing digital divide
  20. ^ Geekcorps using Mini-ITX PCs
  21. ^ Geekcorps Mali using cantennas
  22. ^ DIY lcd projector
  23. ^ DIY lcd and lightbulb projectors
  24. ^ Mehra et al, 2004 (page needed)
  25. ^ Mehra et al, 2004, p.799
  26. ^ Mehra et al, 2004, p.787
  27. ^ Mark Warschauer, "Reconceptualizing the Digital Divide"
  28. ^ Global Alliance for ICT and Development
  29. ^ Digital Alliance Foundation: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Education for All (EFA)
  30. ^ 17 May - World Information Society Day. From portal.unesco.org. Retrieved on 23 November 2007]
  31. ^ Internet Evolution (www.internetevolution.com): 'Internet for Everyone' Attempts to Close Digital Divide

References

  • Bargh, John A.; McKenna, Katelyn Y.A. (2004), "The Internet and Social Life", Annual Review of Psychology, 55: 573–90
  • "REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT AND THE VICE PRESIDENT TO THE PEOPLE OF KNOXVILLE", Clinton Presidential Center (clintonpresidentialcenter.org), October 10, 1996, retrieved 2007-10-27
  • Cheung, Charles (2004), "Identity construction and self-presentation on personal homepages: Emancipatory potentials and reality constraints", Web Studies, New York: Oxford: In D. Guantlett & R. Horsley (Eds.), pp. 53–68
  • Compaine, Benjamin M. (ed.) (2001), The Digital Divide: Facing a Crisis or Creating a Myth?, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, ISBN 0262531933 {{citation}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  • Horrigan, John B.; Smith, Aaron, "Home Broadband Adoption 2007 Report", Pew Internet & American Life (PDF), retrieved 2007-10-27
  • Mehra, Bharat; Merkel, Cecelia; Bishop, Ann P. (2004), "The internet for empowerment of minority and marginalized users", New Media and Society, 6: 781–802
  • Servon, Lisa (2002), Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community, and Public Policy, Malden, MA: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-23242-7
  • Stallman, Richard (06 October 2006), "Transcript of Richard Stallman's speech at World Summit of the Information Society (WSIS) on "Is Free/Open Source Software the Answer?"", Fellowship of Free Software Foundation Europe, retrieved 2007-10-27 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)

Relevant Organizations

  • Digital Divide Network, an internet community for citizens working to bridge the digital divide
  • InterConnection, a non-profit organization that works to reduce the digital divide, providing refurbished computers, laptops, and technologies to schools, NGOs, and other organizations in developing countries throughout the world.
  • Digital Alliance Foundation: Capacity-building ICT Skills
  • Digital Opportunity Channel - provides info on global developments
  • Citizens Online - UK initiative
  • UK Online Centres - gives UK internet access to the "digitally deprived"
  • Close the Gap Int.,an international not-for-profit organisation that helps bridging the digital divide in the world by offering cost-efficient high quality refurbished computers to socio-educational projects such as schools, hospitals and other programmes focussing on improvement of educational and information facilities.

Studies, Reports and Articles

Scholarly Literature

Research Projects

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