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Mozart in Italy

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A portrait of Mozart, aged 14, in Verona, 1770

Mozart in Italy describes three journeys made by the young Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his father, Leopold, between 1769 and 1773. The first visit was an extended tour lasting fifteen months, during which the Mozarts visited most of the main Italian cities, financing their travel through public concerts and private performances for the nobility. The second and third journeys were shorter visits to Milan, fulfilling opera commissions that Wolfgang had acquired during his first visit.

Leopold had been employed as a musician in the Archbishop of Salzburg's court since 1747, becoming deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. Since that date, he had devoted much time to furthering the musical education of his gifted children, Wolfgang and Nannerl, taking them on an extensive European "grand tour" during 1764–67, and, later, on a visit to the Imperial capital, Vienna. During these journeys the children's performances made a considerable impression across European society. By 1769, Nannerl had reached adulthood, but Leopold was anxious to continue 13-year-old Wolfgang's education in Italy, the "fons et origio" of modern music and much of its terminology.[1]

From this perspective, the journeys were a considerable success. During the first tour Wolfgang's performances were well-received, his talents recognised by honours, including a papal knighthood and memberships of leading philharmonic societies. Despite his youth he was contracted to write three operas to be produced in successive seasons (1770–72) at Milan's prestigious Teatro Regio Ducal, each of which was a critical and popular success. He met many of Italy's leading musicians, including the leading musical theorist Giovanni Battista Martini, under whom he studied in Bologna. Leopold harboured a further motive for the journeys—the possibility of a prestigious appointment at one of the many Italian courts for Wolfgang, and possibly for himself. This objective increased in importance as Leopold's prospects for advancement in Salzburg diminished, and was pursued by him to a point where his persistence offended the imperial Habsburg court and precluded any appointment being offered. The journeys thus ended not with a triumphant return, but on a note of disappointment and frustration.

Background

The Mozart home in Salzburg. The family's apartment is immediately above the legend: "Mozarts Geburtshaus" (Mozart's birthplace).

In November 1766, the Mozart family returned to Salzburg after a "grand tour" of the major Northern European cities, which had lasted for three-and-a-half years. Leopold's wish to demonstrate to the wider world the musical talents of his children Nannerl and Wolfgang, twelve and seven years old when the tour began, had met with considerable financial and social success. An extended stay in Vienna in 1767–68 proved less happy; illness and a bereavement in the imperial court prevented the children from performing there, and it became apparent that they were no longer young enough to cause a sensation.[2] In addition, through his over-eagerness to secure a performance of Wolfgang's first real opera, La finta semplice ("The Feigned Simpleton"), Leopold offended the distinguished and influential court composer Christoph Willibald Gluck.[3] A petition from Leopold to Emperor Joseph II, complaining about the opera's treatment by the court impresario Giuseppe Affligio, may have further harmed the Mozart name in the eyes of the imperial court.[4] The opera remained unperformed, and Leopold developed a reputation for being importunate and "pushy".[5]

Leopold Mozart

Back in Salzburg in January 1769, Leopold's focus was increasingly on Wolfgang; Nannerl was now 18 years old, and her education was considered virtually finished.[6] The next stage of Wolfgang's education, Leopold decided, required a visit to Italy. He had wanted to include an Italian leg in the grand tour, in the autumn of 1766, but reluctantly abandoned the idea to hasten his return to Salzburg, concerned about his possible reception there after so long an absence. [7] Italy was considered a Mecca for all musicians, especially with regard to opera.[8] In Leopold's view Wolfgang needed to hear and absorb the music of Venice, Naples and Rome firsthand, to equip himself for future commissions from Europe's opera houses, which biographer Stanley Sadie describes as "the late eighteenth-century composers' honeypots".[8] Leopold wanted Wolfgang to immerse himself in the Italian language and experience church music of the highest order, as well as extending his acquaintanceship with influential people.[6] There was also the possibility of securing positions in the northern Italian courts, still ruled by the Habsburgs, for Leopold, Wolfgang, or both.[8] With these priorities in mind, Leopold decided that the women should stay at home, a decision much resented by them, but which made economic and practical sense.[9]

During the months leading up to their departure, Wolfgang composed prolifically, fostering a positive attitude from the archbishop, Siegmund Christoph von Schrattenbach, towards the forthcoming trip; as Leopold's employer, his consent to the enterprise was required. Permission to travel was given in October, with a gift of 600 florins[10] and the honorary court title of Konzertmeister (court musician) for Wolfgang; there was an indication that this post would carry a salary on his return.[6]

First journey, December 1769 – March 1771

Map showing main centres visited during first Italian journey, December 1769 to March 1771. The black line shows the main outward route from Salzburg to Naples. The green line marks detours taken during the return journey.[11]

Journey to Milan

On 13 December 1769, Leopold and Wolfgang set out from Salzburg, armed with testimonials and letters that Leopold hoped would smooth their passage. Among the most important of these letters was an introduction to Count Karl Joseph Firmian of Milan, described as the "King of Milan", an extremely influential and cultivated patron of the arts. His support would be vital to the success of the entire Italian undertaking.[12]

The pair travelled through Innsbruck, then due south to the Brenner Pass into Italy. The route continued through Bolzano and Rovereto to Verona and Mantua, before turning west towards Milan. The general arrangement was the same as for the family's grand tour—travel and accommodation costs were to be met by the proceeds of concerts. The journey to Milan, about 350 miles (560 km) distance, took them six weeks, due to extensive stops en-route and because the midwinter weather made travelling difficult and unpleasant.[12] Leopold was soon complaining, in his letters home, about unheated inn rooms: "...freezing like a dog, everything I touch is ice".[12] Early concert takings were modest; according to Leopold, costs were running at around 50 florins a week.[13] Leopold was cautious about revealing too much of the tour's finances, tending to emphasise his expenses and minimise his takings,[14] and typically writing: "...On the whole we shall not make much in Italy...one must generally accept admiration and bravos as payment."[15]

The longest pause on the journey to Milan was two weeks spent in Verona. A concert there on 5 January 1770 was reported in glowing terms by the local press.[16] Leopold and his son attended a performance of Guglielmi's Ruggiero, which did not impress Wolfgang, according to the boy's description of the event in a letter to Nannerl.[16] Wolfgang also had his portrait painted by a local artist, Saverio dalla Rosa.[16] This interlude was followed by a shorter stop in Mantua, the highlight of which was a concert given at the Accademia Filarmonica, with a programme designed to test Wolfgang's abilities in performance, sight reading and improvisation. The press review describes the boy's exhibition as leaving the audience "dumbfounded"; he was "a miracle in music, one of those freaks that Nature causes to be born".[17] In Mantua, they suffered a snub from Prince Michael of Thurn and Taxis, who closed his doors to them, informing them via a servant that he had no desire to meet them.[18] By contrast, Count Arco, whose family were members of the Salzburg court, received them warmly.[17][19]

San Marco monastery, Milan, where the Mozarts lodged during their first visit to the city

They arrived in Milan on 23 January, and found comfortable lodgings in the monastery of San Marco, not far from Count Firmian's palace.[20] While they waited to see the Count, they attended Nicola Piccini's opera Cesare in Egitto.[21] Firmian eventually welcomed them with generous hospitality and friendship, presenting Wolfgang with a complete edition of the works of Pietro Metastasio, Italy's leading dramatic writer.[20] He also hosted a series of concerts to which were invited many of the city's notables, including the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand, a possible future patron for the young composer. For the last of these occasions, Wolfgang wrote a set of arias using Metastasio's texts.[20] These were so well received that Firmian arranged a contract for Wolfgang to write the opening opera for the following winter's carnival season in Milan, an honour that Leopold had been hoping for since the Mozarts' arrival in the city.[22][23] Wolfgang would receive a fee of around 500 florins and free lodgings during the period of writing and rehearsal.[20] The Mozarts left Milan on 15 March, heading south towards Florence and Rome, committed to return in the autumn and taking with them fresh letters of recommendation from Firmian.

Up to this point of the tour Wolfgang appears to have done little composition. The Accademia Filharmonica concert in Mantua had contained plenty of improvisation but little of Wolfgang's own music; the only certain compositions from this phase of the tour are the arias composed for the final Firmian concert, which sealed his contract for the carnival opera. These are Se tutti i mali miei, K.83/73p,[24] Misero me, K.77/73e, and Ah pìu tremar, K.71.[22] The Symphony in G, K.74, evidently completed in Rome in April, may have been started in Milan.[25]

Milan to Naples

Padre Giovanni Battista Martini

The first stop on the southward journey was at Lodi, where Wolfgang completed a string quartet, K.80/73f, his first attempt at this genre.[26] After a few days in Parma, the Mozarts moved on to Bologna, a "centre for masters, artists and scholars", according to Leopold.[26] A letter from Firmian introduced them to Count Pallavicini-Centurioni, a leading patron of the arts, who immediately arranged a concert in his palace for the local nobility. Among the guests was Giovanni Battista Martini, known as Padre Martini, the leading musical theorist of his day and Europe's most renowned expert in baroque counterpoint.[26] Martini received the young composer, and tested him with fugue exercises. Leopold was anxious to develop a stronger connection with the great master; such an association would be of great benefit to Wolfgang's future prospects in the courts of Europe. However, for the present time was short, so Leopold arranged to return to Bologna in the summer for an extended period of tuition.[27] He and his son left on 29 March carrying letters from Pallavicini that he hoped would enable Wolfgang to meet Pope Clement XIV when they reached Rome.[28]

Mozart (at keyboard) and Thomas Linley (with violin), in Florence, 1770

The next day the Mozarts arrived in Florence. Pallavicini's letters enabled them to gain an early audience at the Pitti Palace with the Grand Duke and future emperor Leopold, who remembered them from their 1768 Vienna visit and asked after Nannerl.[29][30] In Florence they encountered the violinist Pietro Nardini, whom they had met at the start of their European tour seven years previously;[31] Nardini and Wolfgang performed together during a long concert evening at the Duke's summer palace.[29] Wolfgang also met Thomas Linley, an English violinist prodigy who was a pupil of Nardini's. The two boys formed a close emotional friendship during the few days they spent together, making much music and playing, as Leopold remarked, "not as boys but as men!"[29] Historian Robert Gutman reports that "a melancholy Thomas followed the Mozarts' coach as they departed for Rome on 6 April". The boys never met again; Linley, after a brief career as a composer and violinist, died in a boating accident in 1778, at the age of 22.[32]

It took five days to reach Rome, through wind and rain, staying in inns that Leopold described as disgusting, filthy, and bereft of food.[32] They arrived on 11 April, and were soon using Pallavicini's letters to good effect, obtaining introductions to the Count's kinsman Cardinal Pallavicini, to Prince San Angelo of Naples, and to Charles Edward Stuart, otherwise "Bonnie Prince Charlie", Pretender to the throne of England.[32] There were many concert performances before the nobility, as well as sightseeing. The Mozarts visited the Sistine Chapel to hear a performance of Gregorio Allegri's Miserere, a complex nine-part choral work that Wolfgang later wrote down from memory, a feat that reached the ears of the Pope.[33] Amid these activities, Wolfgang was busily composing. He wrote the contradanse K.123/73g and the aria Se ardire, e speranza,[32] and finished the G major symphony begun earlier. He may have written other symphonies during this time, but this cannot be confirmed.[34]

After four busy weeks the Mozarts departed for Naples. The route through the Pontine Marshes was believed to be harassed by brigands, so Leopold arranged to travel in a convoy of four coaches.[35] They arrived on 14 May, and, armed with their letters of recommendation, were soon calling on the prime minister, Marquess Tanucci, and William Hamilton, the British ambassador, who was an acquaintance from London.[36] They gave a concert on 28 May, which brought in about 750 florins (Leopold would not reveal the amount),[37] and attended the first performance of Niccolò Jommelli's opera Armida abbandonata at the Teatro San Carlo. Wolfgang was impressed both by the music and the performance, though felt it "too old-fashioned and serious for the theatre."[36] He was invited to write an opera for the theatre's next season, but this would have clashed with his Milan commitment, so the offer was declined.[36] When it became clear that a summons to play at the royal court would not be forthcoming, Leopold decided to leave Naples, and after visits to Vesuvius, Herculaneum, Pompeii and the Roman Baths at Baia, they left by post-coach for Rome on 25 June.[36]

Return from Naples

Santa Casa, Loreto, where the Mozarts visited, July 1770

The party made a rapid return to Rome, completing the journey in 27 hours; however, Leopold sustained a leg injury that troubled him for several months.[38] In Rome, Wolfgang was granted an audience with the Pope, and was made a knight of the Order of the Golden Spur, a papal honour carrying the title "Signor Cavaliere".[39][40][41] Wolfgang made light of this in a note to Nannerl; signing himself "Chevalier de Mozart", he added the lavatorial note "Shit on your bed and make a mess of it".[39] After leaving Rome, they travelled to the famous Santa Casa pilgrimage site at Loreto, then took the coastal road to Rimini. They were under military protection, because marauding pirates were attacking the road.[42] From Rimini they moved inland, and reached Bologna on 20 July.

Leopold's priority then was to rest his leg; Wolfgang passed the time by composing a short Minuet, K.122/73t,[43] and a Miserere in A minor, K.85/73s.[44] Meanwhile the libretto for the Milan opera arrived; Leopold had been expecting Metastasio's La Nitetti, but it was Mitridate, re di Ponto, by Vittorio Cigna-Santi.[45] On 10 August, by prior arrangement, they moved into Count Pallavicini's palatial summer residence, where they remained for seven weeks as Leopold's leg gradually improved. Wolfgang meanwhile began work on the Mitridate recitatives.[46] At the beginning of October, with Leopold more or less recovered, they moved back into the city, where Wolfgang, it is thought, began his period of study under Padre Martini.[47] On 9 October he underwent examination for membership of Bologna's Accademia Filharmonica, offering as his test piece the antiphon Quaerite primum regnum, K.86/73v.[48][46] According to Gutman, under ordinary circumstances Wolfgang's "floundering" attempt at this unfamiliar polyphonic form would not have received serious consideration, but Martini was at hand to offer corrections, and Wolfgang's membership was duly approved. It is likely that Martini paid the admission fee.[46] The Mozarts departed for Milan shortly afterwards.

Milan revisted, October 1770 – February 1771

The journey from Bologna to Milan was delayed by storms and floods. Leopold and his son arrived on 18 October, ten weeks before the first performance of the opera. Wolfgang complained about his aching fingers (from writing recitatives),[49] but could not begin work on the arias until the singers were present; it was the prevalent practice that operas were composed in collaboration with the principal performers.[50] As the singers assembled, problems arose. Quirino Gasparini, composer of an earlier version of Mitridate, tried to persuade the prima donna, Antonia Bernasconi, to use his settings for her arias, but met with failure; "Thank God," Leopold wrote, "that we have routed the enemy".[51] However, the principal tenor, Guglielmo d'Ettore, made repeated requests for his arias to be rewritten, and sang one of Gasparini's settings in Act 3, an insertion that survives in the published score of the opera.[52][53]

Church of Santa Maria alla Scala, Milan, demolished in 1788 to provide a site for La Scala opera house, after the nearby Teatro Regio Ducal was burned down.[54]

Rehearsals began on 6 December. Wolfgang's grasp of Italian diction was revealed as the recitatives were practised, and a run-through of the instrumental score displayed his professionalism.[52] Leopold wrote home: "An awful lot of this undertaking, blessed be God, is safely over, and, God be praised, once more with honour!"[55] On 26 December, at the Teatro Regio Ducal ([[Milan's great opera house before La Scala was built), Wolfgang directed the first public performance of his Mitridate from the keyboard, dressed for the occasion in a scarlet coat lined with blue satin and edged with gold.[55] The occasion was a great triumph; at the conclusion the audience cried "Evviva il maestro!" (Long live the master!), and demanded encores.[51] The opera ran for 22 performances during the season.[56] The Gazetta di Milano praised the work in fulsome terms: "The young maestro di capella, who is not yet fifteen years of age, studies the beauties of nature, and represents them adorned with the rarest musical graces".[57] The arias sung by Bernasconi "vividly expressed the passions and touched the heart".[56] Subsequent reactions to the opera proved less effusive; there are no records of further performances of Mitridate anywhere, before its revival in Salzburg in 1971.[51]

Having fulfilled his major obligation for this trip, Wolfgang gave a concert at Firmian's palace on 4 January 1771; a few days later the Mozarts heard that Wolfgang had been given membership of the Accademia Filharmonica of Verona. On 14 January they departed for two weeks in Turin, where they met many of the leading Italian musicians: the distinguished violinist Gaetano Pugnani, his fifteen-year-old prodigy pupil Giovanni Batista Viotti, and the composer Giovanni Paisiello whose opera Annibale in Torino was declared by Leopold to be magnificent. They returned to Milan for a farewell lunch with Firmian before their departure for home on 4 February.[57]

Journey home

Before returning to Salzburg, Leopold and Wolfgang took a detour to Venice, pausing en-route at Brescia to see a comic opera.[58] In Venice, Leopold used his letters of introduction to meet the nobility and to negotiate a contract for Wolfgang to write an opera for the San Benedetto theatre.[59] Wolfgang gave several concert performances, and perhaps played at Venice's famed ospidali, former hospitals that had become foundling schools and, later, respected music academies.[60] Despite the generosity of their treatment, Leopold gave an impression of dissatisfaction that was noticed; "The father seems a shade piqued", wrote a correspondent to the Viennese composer Johann Adolf Hasse, adding: "...they probably expected others to seek after them, rather than they after others."[60] Hasse replied: "The father, as I see the man, is equally discontent everywhere".[59]

Leaving Venice on 12 March, the Mozarts journeyed to Padua, where, during a day of sightseeing, Wolfgang received a commission from the Prince of Aragon to compose an oratorio for the city. This was La Betulia Liberata ("The Liberation of Bethulia"), a work, however, whose subsequent performance history is obscure—it may not have been performed in Padua, or at all in Wolfgang's lifetime.[61] In Verona a few days later, more commissions awaited; Wolfgang was to compose a serenata (or minor opera), which would be performed in Milan in the autumn for the wedding of the Archduke Ferdinand and his bride Princess Beatrice of Modena. At the same time the young composer received a separate commission for another Milan carnival opera, for the 1772–73 season, at an increased fee. This created a clash of dates that would prevent Wolfgang from fulfilling the San Benedetto contract. Thereafter father and son sped northward towards home, arriving in Salzburg on 28 March 1771, just before Easter weekend.[62]

In his review of this first Italian journey, Maynard Solomon's investigation of the meagre financial information provided by Leopold indicates that a substantial profit—perhaps as much as 2,900 florins—was made.[15] The pair had also received widespread social recognition, moving among the highest Italian nobility. Aside from being honoured by the Pope, Wolfgang had been admitted to the academies of Bologna and Verona, and had studied with Padre Martini.[15] Solomon calls this Leopold's "finest hour and [...] perhaps his happiest."[15] Italy, it seemed, had taken Wolfgang to its heart.[63]

Second journey, August–December 1771

The Dowager Empress Marie-Theresa, whose dismissive letter ended Leopold's hopes of an appointment in one of the Habsburg courts

On 21 October 1771, Leopold and Wolfgang returned to Milan to fulfil the wedding opera commission. They shared their lodgings with violinists, a singing-master and an oboist, a menage that, Wolfgang wrote jestingly to Nannerl, was "...delightful for composing, it gives you plenty of ideas!"[64][65] The opera was Ascanio in Alba, with a libretto from the distinguished poet Giuseppe Parini.[66] Working at speed, Wolfgang had finished it by 23 September, the day that rehearsals began.[64]

The serenata was supposedly the lesser of the two works composed for the wedding celebration; the grander piece was expected to be Hasse's opera Ruggiero, which would be performed on 16 October, the day after the wedding, with Ascanio following on the next day.[67] Hasse, at 72 years of age, was out of touch with current theatrical tastes, and although his opera was praised by the Dowager Empress, Maria Theresa, its overall reception was lukewarm, especially compared to that of Ascanio, which proved a triumphant success.[68] Leopold expressed delight at this turn of events: "The archduke has recently ordered two copies", he wrote home, "all the noblemen and other people constantly address us in the street to congratulate Wolfgang. In short! I'm sorry, Wolfgang's Serenata has so crushed Hasse's opera that I can't describe it".[69] Hasse was gracious about his eclipse, reportedly remarking that the boy will cause all others to be forgotten.[70]

The Mozarts were free to leave Milan early in November but they stayed another month. The main reason that kept them was Leopold's hope that Ascanio's success would lead to an appointment for Wolfgang from a royal patron. He apparently solicited Archduke Ferdinand on 30 November, and felt hopeful; his request was passed on to the imperial court in Vienna.[71] It is possible that Leopold's pushiness in Vienna over La finta semplice still rankled there, or that word of his crowing over Hasse's failure had reached the Empress.[70] For whatever reason, Maria Theresa's reply to the archduke was unequivocal, describing the Mozarts as "useless people" whose appointment would debase the royal service, adding "such people go around the world like beggars".[71] Leopold never learned this letter's contents; by the time it reached Milan the Mozarts had departed, disappointed but still hopeful. "The matter is not over; I can say that much", Leopold wrote as he and Wolfgang made their way home.[70] They arrived in Salzburg on 15 December.

Despite the hectic Milan schedule during this short visit, Wolfgang found time to write his Symphony in F, K.112 (No. 13).[72] He contrived a further symphony from the Ascanio overture, adding a finale.[73] Another symphony, K.96/111b, in C major, is sometimes attributed to this Milan visit, but there are questions about whether, or when, Wolfgang wrote it.[74]

Upheaval in Salzburg

File:4172Colloredo.jpg
Hieronymus Count Colloredo, Archbishop of Salzburg

The day after Leopold and Wolfgang arrived back in Salzburg the court was thrown into turmoil by the death of Archbishop Schrattenbach.[75] This was an awkward matter for Leopold, who had outstanding issues with the court. Part of his salary during the second Italian visit had been stopped, and Leopold wished to petition for its payment. He also wished to pursue the matter of Wolfgang's salary as a Konzertmeister, which Schrattenbach had indicated might be paid on Wolfgang's return from the first Italian journey, though this had not yet been done.[76]

A further uncertainty affecting Leopold related to the Salzburg Kappellmeister post. The incumbent, Giuseppe Lolli, was over 70 and ready for retirement; Leopold had followed Lolli as Vice-Kappellmeister, and in ordinary circumstances might have felt confident of succeeding him again.[77] However, the appointment would now be made by the new archbishop, whose policies and attitudes were unclear. On 14 March 1772, amid various political machinations, Count Hieronymus von Colloredo was elected to the archbishopric as a compromise candidate acceptable to the Austrian imperial court.[77]

Although unpopular among Salzburgers, this appointment appeared at first to be to the Mozarts' advantage; Leopold's withheld salary was paid,[78] and, on 31 August, Colloredo authorised the payment of Wolfgang's Konzertmeister salary.[77] However, the new archbishop began to look for someone outside the Salzburg court to be his new Kapellmeister. Eventually, he chose the Italian composer Domenico Fischietti, who was several years younger than Leopold.[77] Realising that his chances of promotion had probably gone forever, Leopold turned his hopes for a comfortable old age towards Wolfgang. The quest for a suitable position for the boy became the main focus of the third Italian journey, which began at the end of October 1772.[77]

Third journey, October 1772 – March 1773

Leopold, Grand Duke of Tuscany, with his family. The Duke was Leopold's last hope of a royal appointment for Wolfgang.

The Mozarts returned to Milan to fulfil the commission for a second carnival opera, which Wolfgang had received at the end of the first journey after the success of Mitridate. This time the text was Lucio Silla, revised by Mestasio from an original by Giovanni de Gamerra.[79] Wolfgang found himself in the familar routine of composing against the clock while coping with dramas such as the late arrival of singers and the withdrawal of the principal tenor through illness.[80] Leopold reported on 18 December that the tenor had arrived, that Wolfgang was composing his arias at breakneck speed, and that rehearsals were in full swing.[81] The first performance, on 26 December, was chaotic; its start was delayed by two hours through the late arrival of Archduke Ferdinand, there were quarrels among the principal performers, and the running time was extended by the insertion of ballets (a common pracice of the time), so the performance was not over until two o'clock the following morning.[81][82] Despite this, subsequent performances were well received; Leopold wrote on 9 January 1773 that the theatre was still full, and that the premiere of the season's second opera, Paisiello's Sismano nel Mogul, had been postponed to allow Wolfgang's piece a longer run—26 performances in all.[81][83] Such success for the new work may have been fleeting; during the next few years the libretto was re-set by several different composers, including Wolfgang's London mentor Johann Christian Bach.[84][85]

During these events Leopold, unaware of the Empress's views, pursued his quest for an appointment for Wolfgang by applying to Grand Duke Leopold of Tuscany, the Empress's third son.[81] The application was strongly supported by Count Firmian, and Leopold, in a coded letter home, said he was quite hopeful.[81] While the Mozarts waited for the reply, Wolfgang composed a series of string quartets (K.155/134a to K.160/159a), and the famous motet Exsultate, jubilate, K.165.[86] Leopold resorted to deception to explain his extended stay in Milan when he had no further duties there, claiming to be suffering from severe rheumatism that prevented him travelling. His cyphered letters[87] to his wife Anna Maria assure her that he is in fact well, but urge her to spread the story of his indisposition.[81][88] By this means he waited through most of January and all through February for the Grand Duke's reply. It came, in the negative, on 27 February.[81] It is not known whether the Grand Duke was influenced by his mother's opinion of the Mozart family,[81] but this rejection effectively ended Leopold's hope of an Italian appointment for Wolfgang. The Mozarts had no choice now but to return to Salzburg; leaving Milan on 4 March and reaching home nine days later. Neither father nor son visited Italy again.[89][90]

Evaluation

Maynard Solomon summarises the Italian journeys as Leopold's greatest triumphs, but also as a great failure.[91] There had been some financial success, noted by Solomon,[92] and Leopold's wishes with regard to Wolfgang's artistic development had been amply fulfilled.[93] Although their reception had not been uniformly cordial—they had been cold-shouldered by the Naples court, and the Prince of Thurn and Taxis had snubbed them—the Italians had mostly responded to them with enthusiasm. Wolfgang had been received and honoured by the Pope; he had been granted membership of leading Philharmonic Societies, and had studied with Italy's greatest music scholar, Padre Martini. Above all, he had been accepted as an exponent of Italian opera by a leading opera house, completing three commissions that resulted in acclaimed performances. Other compositions emanated from the Italian experience, including a full-scale oratorio, several symphonies, string quartets and numerous minor works.[94]

The failure was Leopold's inability, despite his efforts and persistence, to secure prestigious music appointments either for himself or Wolfgang.[91] Leopold was evidently unaware of the light in which he was generally held, demonstrated in Haas's quoted letter and more forcibly by the Empress's tirade. Ignorant of the truth, Leopold could nevertheless perceive a barrier to his Italian hopes, and eventually recognised that he could not overcome the forces lined up against him.[91] In any event Wolfgang's Italian triumphs proved short-lived; despite the critical and popular successes of his Milan operas he was not invited to write another, and received no further commissions from any of the other centres he had visited.[91] With all hopes of an Italian court appointment gone, Leopold would seek to secure the family's future by other means: "We shall not go under, for God shall help us. I have already thought out some plans."[91]

Wolfgang was qualified by his skills at keyboard and violin, and by his compositional experience, for a post as Kapellmeister, but at 17 he was too young.[95] He remained in Colloredo's employment at the Salzburg court, increasingly discontent, until his dismissal and departure for Vienna in 1781.[96] Leopold, unpromoted from his rank of deputy, remained with the court until his death in 1787.[97]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ Zaslaw, p. 156
  2. ^ Blom, p. 38
  3. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 135–39
  4. ^ Gutman, pp. 238–39
  5. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 140–41
  6. ^ a b c Halliwell, pp. 142–43
  7. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 99–100
  8. ^ a b c Sadie, p. 176
  9. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 177
  10. ^ The florin, or gulden, was the currency of the Austro-Hungarian empire. A florin was worth about one-tenth of a £ sterling. The generosity of the gift is apparent, when compared with Leopold's annual salary of 354 florins (Sadie (2006), p. 35)
  11. ^ The routes are summarised from Sadie's detailed descriptions, (2006) pp.179–233
  12. ^ a b c Halliwell, p. 145
  13. ^ Halliwell, p.146
  14. ^ During the early days of the Grand Tour Leopold had boasted in letters to Salzburg about his financial successes. He later decided to keep such information to himself, giving only minimal details of income. He maintained this policy during the Italian journeys. Solomon, p. 58
  15. ^ a b c d Solomon, pp. 86–87 Cite error: The named reference "Solomon86" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  16. ^ a b c Sadie (2006), pp. 181–84
  17. ^ a b Sadie (2006), pp. 185–86
  18. ^ Gutman, pp. 260–61
  19. ^ Ironically, it would be the Salzburg Count Arco that ten years later, would administer the famous "kick in he ass" that ended Wolfgang's appointment in the Salzburg court. Gutman, pp. 548–49
  20. ^ a b c d Halliwell, pp. 146–48
  21. ^ Zaslaw, p. 163
  22. ^ a b Sadie (2006), p. 190
  23. ^ Gutman, p. 263
  24. ^ "K" refers to the catalogue of Mozart's works, completed in 1862 by Ludwig von Köchel and revised several times subsequently. Where two K numbers are given, the first is the original number given by Köchel, the second is the figure according to the most recent revision of the catalogue (1964). See Sadie (2006), pp. 613–21, also Zaslaw, pp. 558–61
  25. ^ Zaslaw, p. 178
  26. ^ a b c Sadie (2006), pp.190–91
  27. ^ Gutman, pp. 266–67
  28. ^ Halliwell, p. 148
  29. ^ a b c Gutman, pp. 268–69
  30. ^ The northern Italian provinces were all territories of the Austro-Hungarian empire, and were ruled by Habsburg princes connected with the imperial court in Vienna.
  31. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 39
  32. ^ a b c d Sadie (2006), pp. 193–96
  33. ^ Gutman, pp. 270–71
  34. ^ Zaslaw, pp. 169–71
  35. ^ Gutman, pp. 274–75
  36. ^ a b c d Sadie (2006), pp. 196–99
  37. ^ Halliwell, p. 150
  38. ^ Halliwell, p. 151
  39. ^ a b Gutman, pp. 280–81
  40. ^ Wolfgang's degree of knighthood in the Order was evidently higher than that of the distinguished composers Gluck and Dittersdorf. Grove, Vol 12 p. 684
  41. ^ Gutman, p. 280
  42. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 200–01
  43. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 206
  44. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 211
  45. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 201
  46. ^ a b c Gutman, pp. 282–84
  47. ^ Gutman. p. 283. Sadie (2006), p. 211 say that there is no reference to these lessons in Leopold's correspondence.
  48. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 210–11
  49. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 212
  50. ^ Halliwell, pp. 153–54 – "The first hurdle to be overcome was that of pleasing the singers."
  51. ^ a b c Osborne, p. 55
  52. ^ a b Gutman, p. 285
  53. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 219–20
  54. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 188
  55. ^ a b Halliwell, p. 154
  56. ^ a b Sadie (2006), pp. 222–23
  57. ^ a b Sadie (2006), pp. 228–29
  58. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 230
  59. ^ a b Sadie, pp. 230–31
  60. ^ a b Gutman, pp. 288–89
  61. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 232 and pp. 246–50
  62. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 232–33
  63. ^ Blom, p. 57
  64. ^ a b Sadie (2006), p. 239
  65. ^ Gutman, p. 295
  66. ^ Gutman, p. 295
  67. ^ Halliwell, p.164
  68. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 239–41
  69. ^ Halliwell, p. 166. Other sources report this wording differently, but the sentiment is the same.
  70. ^ a b c Gutman, p. 298–99
  71. ^ a b Sadie (2006), pp. 244–45
  72. ^ Zaslaw, pp. 190–91
  73. ^ Zaslaw, pp. 188–189
  74. ^ Zaslaw, pp. 186–88
  75. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 257
  76. ^ Halliwell, p. 166
  77. ^ a b c d e Halliwell, pp. 177–79
  78. ^ Halliwell, p. 174
  79. ^ Osborne, p. 81
  80. ^ Sadie (2006), pp. 278–80
  81. ^ a b c d e f g h Halliwell, pp. 180–86
  82. ^ Osborne (p. 82) says the work was timed to last four hours without the ballets, which means that as he says, the tempi must have been very leisurely, though no doubt many of the arias were encored.
  83. ^ Osborne, p. 82
  84. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 284
  85. ^ Rushton, p. 31
  86. ^ Sadie, (2006) pp. 292–95
  87. ^ Leopold's letters home were for part public consumption, and would have circulated around Salzburg. They were also subject to censorship.(Gutman, p. 11) Private messages to Anna Maria were encrypted so that only she could interpret them.
  88. ^ Gutman, p. 308
  89. ^ Gutman, p. 309
  90. ^ Blom, p. 62
  91. ^ a b c d e Solomon, pp. 93–94
  92. ^ Solomon p. 87
  93. ^ "Wolfgang's universal artistic development would have been unmaginable without these journeys." Grove, Vol. 12 p. 676
  94. ^ See Sadie (2006), pp. 202–07, pp. 250–56 and pp. 292–95 for details of works composed in Italy. Some may have been finished or worked on in Salzburg between journeys, or after the final return home.
  95. ^ Rushton, p. 30
  96. ^ Blom, pp. 101–704
  97. ^ Sadie (2006), p. 258

Sources

  • Blom, Eric (1935). 'Mozart' (Master Musicians series). London: J. M. Dent.
  • Glover, Jane (2005). Mozart's Women. London: Macmillan. ISBN 1-4050-2121-7.
  • Gutman, Robert W. (1999). Mozart: A Cultural Biography. San Diego: Harcourt Inc. ISBN 0-15-601171-9.
  • Halliwell, Ruth (1998). The Mozart Family: Four Lives in a Social Context. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816371-1.
  • Hildesheimer, Wolfgang (1985). Mozart. London: J. M. Dent. ISBN 0-460-02401-9.
  • Kenyon, Nicholas (2006). The Pegasus Pocket Guide to Mozart. New York: Pegasus Books. ISBN 1-933648-23-6.
  • Osborne, Charles (1992). The Complete Operas of Mozart. London: Victor Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-03823-3.
  • Rushton, Julian (2006). Mozart. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. ISBN 0-19-518264-2.
  • Sadie, Stanley (2006). Mozart: The Early Years, 1756–1781. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-06112-4.
  • Sadie, Stanley (ed.) (1980). New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Volume 12. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-3333-23111. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  • Solomon, Maynard (1995). Mozart: A Life. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 0-09-174704-X.
  • Zaslaw, Neal (1991). Mozart's Symphonies: Context, Performance Practice, Reception. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-816286-3.
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