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Macaroni penguin

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Macaroni Penguin
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Sphenisciformes
Family:
Spheniscidae
Genus:
Eudyptes
Species:
E. chrysolophus
Binomial name
Eudyptes chrysolophus
(Brandt, 1837)

The Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) is a species of penguin that is closely related to the Royal Penguin. There are about 18 million Macaroni Penguins in existence, and the number is decreasing[2], due to unideal environmental conditions and their many predators. These factors result in their vulnerable conservation status. They are distributed from the Subantarctic to the Antarctic Peninsula. Like all penguins in genus Eudyptes, Macaroni Penguins are most often distinguished by the yellow and black plumes on the tops of their heads. Macaroni Penguins cannot fly. Their wings are stiff and flattened into flippers, which gives them a better swimming ability. Adult Macaroni Penguins average about 5.5 kg (12 lb) in weight and average 71 cm (28 in) in length. Their diet consists of a variety of crustaceans, mainly krill and squid. They moult once a year before returning to their colonies to mate.

Taxonomy

Macaroni Penguins are members of the genus Eudyptes, which is derived from the Ancient Greek words eu "good", and dyptes "diver". Their species epithet chrysolophus, literally means "golden crest". There are six species in the genus Eudyptes, collectively known as crested penguins.[3]

Macaroni Penguins are large, crested penguins, similar in appearance to other members of the genus Eudyptes, such as the Royal Penguin (Eudyptes schlegeli). However, the Macaroni Penguin is smaller than the Royal Penguin. Macaroni Penguin have yellow crests that arise from a patch on the center of their foreheads, and extend along the back of their heads.[4]

The common name was given to the species by English explorers, probably due to the bird's conspicuous yellow crest. Maccaronism was a term for a particular style in 18th-century England marked by flamboyant or excessive ornamentation. A person who adopted this fashion was labeled a maccaroni or macaroni, as in the song Yankee Doodle.[5]

Evolution

Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggest that the Macaroni Penguin split from its closest relative, the Royal Penguin, around 1.5 million years ago.[6] Although Macaroni Penguins and Royal Penguins have always been considered separate species, the close similarities of their DNA sequences has recently led some, such as the Australians Les Christidis and Walter Boles, to reclassify the Royal as a subspecies of the Macaroni.[7][8] The two species are very similar in appearance. Royal Penguins have white faces, while the Macaroni Penguins generally (but not always) have black faces.[9]

Description

Macaroni Penguins are known for their conspicuous orange and yellow crests.

The adult Macaroni Penguin may reach a length of around 71 cm (28 in) and weigh around 5.5 kg (12 lb). The head, chin, throat and upperparts are black, while the underparts are white. The flippers are black on the upper surface, but mainly white underneath. The large bill is orange and the eyes are red. There is a patch of bare skin from the base of the bill to the eye. The legs and feet are pink. The male and female are similar in appearance, although the former tend to be slightly larger. [10]

Distribution and habitat

A 1993 review estimated that there are a minimum of 11,841,600 pairs of Macaroni Penguins worldwide.[11] Macaroni Penguins range from the sub-Antarctic to the Antarctic Peninsula. There are a minimum of 216 breeding colonies at 50 sites. In South America, Macaroni Penguins are found in southern Chile, the Falkland Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, and South Orkney Islands. They also occupy much of Antarctica and the Antarctic Peninsula, including the South Shetland Islands, Bouvet Island, the Prince Edward and Marion islands, the Crozet Islands, the Kerguelen Islands, the Heard and McDonald Islands. While foraging for food, groups will range north to the islands off Australia, New Zealand, southern Brazil, Tristan da Cunha, and South Africa.[12]

Behavior

Diet

The diet of the Macaroni Penguin consists of a variety of crustaceans, squid and fish. During chick-rearing, foraging for food is generally conducted on a daily basis, with adults returning to the nest site before dark. Macaroni Penguins normally forage at depths of 15 to 70 metres (49 to 230 ft), but have been recorded diving down to 100 metres (330 ft) on occasions. Some night foraging does occur, but these dives are much shallower, ranging from only 3 to 6 metres (9.8 to 19.7 ft) in depth. Dives rarely exceed two minutes in duration.[13]

Reproduction

The breeding range of Macaroni Penguins is confined to South Georgia Island, the South Orkney, South Sandwich, and northern South Shetland islands, with additional colonies on Bouvet, Crozet, Heard, Kerguelen, Macquarie, Marion, and the Prince Edward Islands.[14] Female Macaroni Penguins can begin breeding at around five years of age, while the males do not normally breed until at least six years old. Females breed at a younger age because the male population is larger. The surplus of male penguins allows the female penguins to select more experienced male partners as soon as the females are physically able to breed.[15] Adult Macaroni Penguins typically begin to breed late in October, and lay their eggs in early November.[16] A fertile Macaroni Penguin will lay two eggs each breeding season. The first egg laid weighs 90-94 g and is only 61-64% the size of the (145-155 g) second, and is extremely unlikely to survive.[17] Its fate is mostly unknown, but studies on the related Royal Penguin and Erect-crested Penguin show the female tips the egg out, when the larger second egg is laid. Both the male and female penguins keep the egg warm in long shifts, a process called incubation. The second egg hatches around 34 days after it is laid. Macaroni Penguins typically leave their breeding colony by April or May.[18][19]

Early life

From the moment the egg is hatched, the male Macaroni Penguin cares for the newly hatched chick. For about three weeks, or twenty-three to twenty-five days, the male protects its offspring and helps to keep it warm, since only a few of its feathers have grown in at this point. The female brings food to the chick every one to two days. At this early stage, chicks have not grown their adult feathers. When they are not being protected by the adult male penguins, the chicks form groups with each other called creches. They do this in order to keep warm and stay protected. Once their adult feathers have grown in, at about sixty to seventy days, they are ready to go out to sea on their own.[20]

Predators

The Macaroni Penguin's predators consist of birds and aquatic mammals. Leopard Seals are the main predator for Macaroni Penguins when they are in the water. Birds, especially skuas and sheathbills, prey on Macaroni Penguin eggs and young chicks.[21]

Moulting

Macaroni Penguins moult once a year, a process in which they replace all of their old feathers. Before moulting, they spend around two weeks fattening themselves up because moulting requires much energy. During moulting, they do not feed because without feathers they cannot go in the water to forage for food. The process typically takes from three to four weeks, which they spend sitting ashore. Once they are finished moulting, they go back to sea. In the spring they return to their colonies in order to mate.[22]

Conservation

Although the number of Macaroni Penguins is currently high, the decline of the overall population in the last 30 years has resulted in the classification of the species as globally Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Long-term monitoring programs are underway at a number of breeding colonies, and many of the islands that support breeding populations of this penguin are protected reserves. The Heard Islands and McDonald Islands are World Heritage Sites for the Macaroni Penguin. If the threats facing the Macaroni Penguin continue unabated, it seems likely that the population declines will continue.[23]

References

Wikispecies has information related to Eudyptes chrysolophus.
  1. ^ Template:IUCN2008
  2. ^ Benstead, Phil (2008). "Species Factsheet". BirdLife International. Retrieved 2009-01-16. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ "Eudyptes (Genus)". Zipcode Zoo. Bay Science Foundation. 2008-11-20. Retrieved 2008-12-03. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ Chao, Vickie (2008). "Royal Penguins". EdHelper. Retrieved 10 January 2009.
  5. ^ Steele, Valerie (1998). Paris Fashion: A Cultural History. Berg Publishers. pp. 21–32. ISBN 978-1859739730. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ Baker AJ, Pereira SL, Haddrath OP, Edge KA (2006). "Multiple gene evidence for expansion of extant penguins out of Antarctica due to global cooling". Proc Biol Sci. 273 (1582): 11–17. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3260. PMID 16519228. Retrieved 2008-03-21.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Christidis L, Boles WE (2008). Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds. Canberra: CSIRO Publishing. p. 98. ISBN 9780643065116.
  8. ^ Juliff, Peter (December 2008). "From the Pole to the Equator: A ponoply of Penguins" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-01-27. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  9. ^ Williams (The Penguins) p. 214
  10. ^ Atkinson, Kathie (2003–2008). "Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus)". Arkive. Retrieved 2008-11-11. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: date format (link)
  11. ^ Woehler, EJ (1993). The distribution and abundance of Antarctic and subantarctic penguins. Cambridge, United Kingdom: SCAR/ Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research.
  12. ^ Curry, Tiera. "Macaroni Penguin". Center for Biological Diversity. Retrieved 2008-11-17. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  13. ^ Green, K. (1997-05-07). "Foraging ecology and diving behavior of Macaroni Penguins Eudyptes chrysolophus at Heard Island" (PDF). Marine Ornithology. 26: 27–34. Retrieved 2008-10-06. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Bernstein, Neil. "New Southerly Record for the Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) on the Antarctic Peninsula" (PDF). Short Communications. Retrieved 2008-12-07. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Bingham, Mike (2006). "Macaroni Penguin". International Penguin Conservation Work Group. Retrieved 2008-11-11. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  16. ^ Tiera, Curry. "Macaroni Penguins". Center for Biological Diversity. Retrieved 2009-01-16. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  17. ^ Williams (The Penguins) p. 217
  18. ^ Tiera, Curry. "Macaroni Penguins". Center for Biological Diversity. Retrieved 2009-01-16. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  19. ^ "Macaroni Penguins". Heard Island and McDonald Islands. Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage, and the Arts. 2005. Retrieved 2008-11-04. {{cite news}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
  20. ^ Reynolds, Katie (2001). "Eudypteschrysolophus". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2008-11-11. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  21. ^ L, J. J. (2004). "Macaroni Penguin". Penguin Spirit. Retrieved 2008-11-12. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  22. ^ Riffenburgh, Beau (2007). Encyclopedia of the Antarctic. CRC Press. p. 605.
  23. ^ Atkinson, Kathie (2003–2008). "Macaroni Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus)". Arkive. Retrieved 2008-12-07. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: date format (link)

Cited text

  • Williams, Tony D. (1995). The Penguins. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854667-X.
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