Midshipman

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This article is about naval rank. For the fish, see midshipman fish. For the sports teams of the Naval Academy, see Navy Midshipmen.
Midshipman of the Royal Navy (c. 1799),[1] by Thomas Rowlandson

A midshipman is an officer cadet, or alternatively a commissioned officer of the lowest rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, Royal Australian Navy, Royal New Zealand Navy, and South African Navy. Prior to 1968, the Royal Canadian Navy used the rank of Midshipman but after the creation of the Canadian Forces, Midshipman was replaced by the rank of Naval Cadet.[2]

During the days of sailing vessels, from the 17th through the 19th centuries, a midshipman was an apprentice officer. The word derives from the location of ship, amidships, where they were berthed.[3] The midshipman used to serve seven years on the lower deck and was roughly equivalent to a present day petty officer in rank and position.[4]

During the 19th century training of naval officers in both the Royal Navy and the U.S. Navy changed toward formal schooling in a naval college as opposed to an apprenticeship aboard ships. Today, a Midshipman is the term for an officer cadet in the U.S. Navy. In the modern Royal Navy, Royal Australian Navy, and the Royal New Zealand Navy non-graduates join as Midshipman, while those with a university degree join as a Sub-Lieutenant.

History

Apprentice officers

The rank of midshipman is one of the oldest ranks still in existence. The first published use of the term Midshipmen was in 1662, and from 1677 all candidates for commissioned rank in the Royal Navy required previous service as a midshipman. After 1794, all newly rated midshipmen were considered as candidates for a commission.[5][6]

Career opportunities in the navy, c.1810

At the height of the Age of Sail during the Napoleonic era (1793 - 1815), most midshipmen started their sailing career around the age of 11 or 12. The regulations in the Royal Navy demanded that no-one 'be rated as master's mate or midshipman who shall not have been three years at sea'.[7] There were several ways of getting around this requirement. Since most midshipmen were from the landed gentry or had family connections with sailing ships, they could use their standing to have their name placed on a ship's books. A notable example was Thomas Cochrane, whose uncle had him entered at the age of 5, and his name was carried on various ships until he was 18 and received his commission.[7]

Another way was through the Royal Naval Academy, (renamed the Royal Naval College in 1806), in Portsmouth. This had been founded in 1729, for 40 students between 13 and 16 who would take 3 years to complete. After graduation, they would serve on a ship as a midshipman.[7] The school was not popular because of an aversion to 'book learning' in the navy, and it tended to infringe on the officers' privileges in the matter of taking on servants.[8]

Most boys served the appropriate time at sea. The other four years might be served in any lower rating,[9] either as a seaman or as a servant of one of the ship's officers. For example, a captain was entitled to 4 servants for every 100 men aboard, many of which were young men destined to become officers.[8] In 1794, a new class of volunteers called 'Volunteer Class I' was created for young gentlemen, between the ages of 11 and 13, who intended to become sea officers. Volunteers were were paid £6 per year.[8]

Midshipmen in the Age of Sail came from a wide social background. The largest group was the sons of professional men, about 50 percent of officers. This group included the sons of naval officers, and there were notable sailing families through out the age of sail such as Saumarez, Hood and Parker. The family connection was an obvious advantage with the power of promotion these men held. The next largest group was from the landed gentry, about 27 percent of officers. The numbers were smaller, but similarly, their connections gave them excellent prospects for promotion, and they had a considerable influence on the Royal Navy. The rest were from commercial or working class backgrounds, and because of the advantages possessed by the gentry and professional sailors, their chances at promotion to lieutenant were slim.[8]

Midshipman were expected to work on the ship, but were also expected to learn navigation and seamanship. The work consisted of tasks normally assigned to both seamen as well as other officers. They were expected to rig sails as a seaman, which they had learned previously as an able seaman or volunteer. Midshipmen were expected to serve on watch, supervise a battery of guns and a sub-division of the ship's company under one one of the lieutenants, and command small boats. Midshipmen usually were instructed by the senior master's mate, often a passed midshipman, who taught them mathematics, navigation, and sailing lore. They were expected to keep detailed navigational logs which were shown to the captain to assess their progress. [8][10][11]

Most midshipmen aspired to take the lieutenant examination at age 17 or 18, and the average age of a midshipman was between 15 and 22.[9] Promotion to Lieutenant meant a prospective officer had to take a formal examination. The candidate was summoned before a board of three captains and questioned about seamanship, navigation and discipline. Here is an example of a question from around 1790:

An enemy is observed; give orders for clearing your ship, and make all the necessary preparations for engaging.[12]

The actual exam questions varied quite considerably, depending mostly on individual captains. A prospective lieutenant was expected to produce proof of his service, journals kept while a midshipman, and certificates of his diligence and sobriety from his commanders. In seamanship he was expected to be able to splice ropes, reef a sail, work a ship in sailing and shift his tides. In navigation he had to keep a reckoning of the ship's way by plane sailing and on Mercator projection maps, by observing the sun or stars he should be able to determine course and position and understand the variation of the compass. Knowledge of discipline was such as qualified as the duty of an able seaman and midshipman.[12][13]

Successful completion of the examination made the midshipman a 'Passed Midshipman'.[12] From the 18th century until the second half of the 19th century, a midshipman in the Royal Navy who passed the lieutenant's examination did not automatically receive a commission. Midshipmen with political connections were promoted first, while others would wait their turn on a roster. During a time of war, with a large number of ships and battle took its toll on officers, the wait might be a year or two. During a time of peace promotion might be delayed so long that it arrived too late to be of any value to the midshipman.[14] Originally, a master's mate was an experienced seaman, assistant to the master but not inline for promotion to Lieutenant. By the middle of the 18th century, he was more likely a passed midshipman waiting to receive his commission but paid at a higher rate.[12] By the 19th century master's mate was commonly referred to as mate, but was not an official rank. In 1838 a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Wellington, recommended the institution of the rank of mate as an official step between midshipman and lieutenant.[14] In 1861 mate was abolished in favor of sub-lieutenant.[14]

Cadet officers

In the mid 19th century, naval officer education in the UK and the United States changed to adopt the naval college approach as opposed to the apprenticeship approach favored in the age of sail, and during this time period the term midshipman evolved into its modern definition as an officer cadet at a naval college. As instruction was formalized to approximately 4 years in a college, the time spent at sea as midshipmen was steadily reduced as the age of entry increased from 12 in the middle of the 19th century to 18 in the middle of the 20th century. Midshipmen had to learn four to five times as much as his counterpart of a hundred years ago, with only half, or even less, time in which to do it.[15] Until the middle of the 20th century, Midshipmen in both the Royal Navy and the US Navy served aboard ships after graduation before promotion to Lieutenant(former) or Ensign (latter).

In the UK, the original Royal Naval College closed in 1836 and the only method for training midshipman was aboard ships. After studying a drop in qualified officers in the Navy, a 1856 commission decided to form a school to train midshipmen for the Royal Navy, called the The Royal Naval College. The school was officially founded in 1858 in Portsmouth when the wooden hulk HMS Britannia was selected as a training ship, and instruction of boys between 12 and 14 started January 1, 1859.[16] The Britannia was moved to Portland in 1862, and finally in 1863 to the present location of the school in Dartmouth.[16] Officer instruction consisted of two years of classroom training at the Royal Naval College rated as Cadets, followed by a year aboard a special training vesel. At this point, cadets were rated as Midshipmen, and served aboard the fleet of training vessels at Dartmouth for another 2 years. After 5 total years of training and having reached the age of 19, the midshipmen were eligible to take the examination for Lieutenant.[17]

In 1850 in the US, midshipmen at the newly formed United States Naval Academy studied at the Academy for four years and trained aboard ships each summer.[18] Shortly thereafter, the rank of Ensign was created in 1862 and passed Midshipmen were promoted to Ensign when vacancies occurred.[19] Midshipman began to mean passed midshipmen at this time, and a student at the Naval Academy was a Cadet Midshipman.[19] In 1874, Congress changed the curriculum to 4 years of classroom training, and 2 years of sea duty aboard a regular vessel prior to examinations.[20] In 1882, Congress designated the student officers as "naval cadets", and the name reverted back to "midshipman" in 1902.[18]

As Dominions of the British Empire formed their own navies during the 20th century, additional countries began using the rank Midshipmen. The navies of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa still use the title. Prior to 1968, Canada used the rank of Midshipman, until the National Defense Act consolidated Royal Canadian Navy with the Army and Air Force into a single military, called the Canadian Forces. As part of the act, the rank of Midshipmen was eliminated and replaced with the rank of Naval Cadet.[2]

Modern usage

Royal Navy

Royal Navy Midshipman's badge

Template:FixBunching

Royal Navy Midshipman's insignia

Template:FixBunching In the Royal Navy a Midshipman is the second lowest rank of officer, above the rank of Cadet RN which is referred to in the Naval Discipline Act 1957 [21] but no longer used. Although not commissioned, midshipmen are officers in the Royal Navy, and rank immediately below Second Lieutenants in the British Army and Pilot Officers in the Royal Air Force and above all enlisted and warrant ranks (although pre-1956 Royal Navy and Royal Marines Warrant Officers and Commissioned Officers from Warrant Rank were senior to Midshipmen). A midshipman's rank insignia, which have changed little since Napoleonic times, are a white patch of cloth with a gold button and a twist of white cord on each side of the coat collar.[22][23]

Today those joining the Navy as graduates start as Sub-Lieutenants with non-graduates joining as Midshipmen.[24] Until they have completed initial sea training, both midshipmen and sub-lieutenants at Britannia Royal Naval College do not use their substantive ranks, but use the non-substantive rank of Officer Cadet.[25]

In Royal Navy slang, midshipmen are sometimes referred to as "snotties", and a somewhat dubious legend states that the three buttons formerly on the jacket cuffs of the midshipman were placed there to prevent him wiping his nose on his sleeve.[26]

United States Navy and Marine Corps

U.S. Navy and Marine Corps midshipman rank structure

In the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps, a midshipman is classified as an officer of the line but only in a qualified sense.[27] Midshipmen rank just below chief warrant officers.[27] Students at the United States Naval Academy are appointed to the rank of Midshipman, U.S. Navy, while students in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps(NROTC) are appointed as Midshipman, United States Navy Reserve. Students at the United States Merchant Marine Academy are appointed as Midshipman, United States Merchant Marine Reserve, U.S. Naval Reserve.[28]

Midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy and in the NROTC wear uniforms that comply with standards established for commissioned officers of the United States Navy, with shoulder board and sleeve insignia varying by school year or officer rank as prescribed by Chapter 6 of Navy Uniform Regulations.[29] Midshipmen wear gold fouled anchors as the primary insignia on caps and shoulder boards and plain anchors as collar insignia on service dress and full dress uniforms. Marine Option Midshipmen in Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps, who are in training to become officers in the U.S. Marine Corps, wear gold U.S. Marine enlisted globe and anchor insignia in place of the anchor insignia worn by other Midshipmen.[29] Marine Option Midshipmen, although bound for commissioning in the Marine Corps, hold the rank of Midshipman, U.S. Naval Reserve.[30]

Midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy wear two distinctive uniforms not worn by any other personnel in the U.S. Navy: Full Dress Blue, a uniform with a double-breasted jacket with 18 buttons and a high collar piped in gold, and White Works, consisting of a white sailor's jumper and bell-bottom trousers fastened by a drawstring at the waist. Fourth Class Midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy wear a traditional sailor's white hat with a blue band at the top during their initial (Plebe Summer) training.[31]

The student body at the U.S. Naval Academy is the Brigade of Midshipmen and the student body at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy is the Regiment of Midshipmen. The Midshipmen is also the name for sports teams fielded by the U.S. Naval Academy.[32]

Royal Australian Navy

Royal Australian Navy midshipman insignia[33]

A Midshipman in the Royal Australian Navy holds a commission, however this is not confirmed and officially issued until promotion to Lieutenant. The rank of Midshipman is a transitional rank indicating that a person is under training to be a Naval officer.[34] Generally, trainees who have no university education or a three year degree enter the college as Midshipmen, while trainees with significant experience or more university education enter as Sub-Lieutenants, Lieutenants and Chaplains.[35]

On joining the Royal Australian Navy, most Midshipmen complete six months initial Officer training at the Royal Australian Naval College, followed by a six-month consolidation period in the fleet.[36] Midshipmen then study at the Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) in their second year in the Navy, while Navy Pilots and Observers go directly to ADFA. Midshipmen undertake an undergraduate degreeover the course of three years, whilst also completing elements of their naval training.[37] Cadets at ADFA are also undergraduate students of the University of New South Wales (UNSW). When they graduate from UNSW at ADFA at the completion of their three or four year undergraduate program, they do so with a fully recognized degree from UNSW - the same as the degree received by graduates of UNSW's campus in Sydney.[38] During Single Service Training at ADFA all Midshipmen visit shore establishments and go to sea on Navy ships to gain an appreciation of shipboard life.[37]

Royal New Zealand Navy

Royal New Zealand Navy midshipman patch [39]

A Midshipman in the Royal New Zealand Navy is the rank given to officers under training, and retained upon completion of initial training by those without a university degree.[40] Those that hold a University degree are promoted to Sub-Lieutenant upon completion of training.[41]

A Midshipman holds a commission, however this is not confirmed and officially issued until promotion to Lieutenant. Unlike Officer Cadet ranks in the Army, Midshipmen are treated as Officers. At any given time there may be around 60 Midshipmen in the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN).[40]

South African Navy

South African Navy Midshipman insignia [42]

A Midshipmen in the South African Navy is the lowest rank of officer. Cadets initially train at the South African Naval College in Gordon's Bay, near Simonstown for one year, and upon graduation they are commissioned as Midshipmen. Midshipmen study for 3 more years at the South African Military Academy, and upon graduation receive a B Mil degree from the University of Stellenbosch.[43]

Other countries

The non-english speaking countries with officer training most similar to British Royal Navy were the Netherlands, who have called their midshipmen 'Young Gentlemen', (Dutch: Adelborst) since the early 17th century, and Germany who call their midshipmen Naval Cadet, (German: Seekadett). In both cases, while officer candidates are trained in naval colleges they have not been elevated to a candidate or commissioned officer status as they were in most other countries, and still rank explicitly in the petty officer structure until graduation. For example, in Germany, cadets start as Seekadetten, who are equivalent to the NCO rank Mate (German: Maat). In their second year are promoted to Ensign (German: Fähnrich zur See), which is equivalent to the NCO rank Boatswain (German: Bootsman). In their third year cadets are promoted to the rank (German: Oberfähnrich zur See) which is equivalent to the NCO rank (German: Hauptbootsmann). The translation of Midshipman into German overlaps with both Seekadett and Fähnrich/Oberfähnrich depending on the context.[44]

The term "Navy Guard" is commonly translated to midshipmen in many languages, (French: garde marine),[45] (Spanish: guardia marina),[46] (Portuguese: guarda-marinha} and (Italian: guardiamarina), but while they were all young men training to be naval officers, they were historically selected, trained, and served much differently than midshipmen in the British Royal Navy. France established the rank in 1670 when an office of the monarchy selected young gentlemen from the nobility to serve the King in the Gardes de la Marine. They were organized into companies of cadets in 1686 at the ports of Brest, Rochefort and Toulon. They trained mostly on shore, instructed by teachers to learn both navigation as well as military training.[45] The concept of the Gardes was borrowed from the army, and the curriculum was intended to provide the basic education for a an officer rather than practical seamanship.[47] The Spanish navy under its new Bourbon monarch developed its professional officer education along the same lines as the French. Spain created the rank of guardia marina in 1717 when they formed the Royal Company of Midshipmen (Spanish: Real Compañía de Guardias Marinas) at the port of Cadiz with a similar curriculum.[48][47]

Just before the French Revolution, in 1786, reforms introduced into the navy produced a more efficient and rational system. Similar to the British, a petty officer with six years service might also join officer ranks following an examination. Such newly recruited officers wore blue uniforms, unlike the red uniforms of the Gardes de la Marine, a reminder of their more lowly social status.[49] In Republican France, garde marine, due to its royal connection, was replaced by naval cadet (French: aspirant), and then officer candidate, (French: élèves de la Marine).[45] This can be seen in the modern day structure of officer training in France, the students at the École navale begin their the first year as a élève officier, are promoted in their second year to aspirant, and in their third year they are commissioned as Sub-Lieutenant 2nd Class. In a modern French dictionary, élève officier translates to midshipman, but both the historical term garde-marine and the modern term for an officer candidate, aspirant are equivalent to midshipmen.[50][51]

In most Spanish and Portuguese speaking countries, officers begin training as an naval cadet, (Spanish: aspirante) and (Portuguese: aspirante), and during (Spain, Brazil) or after (Portugal) training are promoted to guardia marina/guarda-marinha.[52] Similarly, in Italy officer cadets are (Italian: Aspirante guardiamarina), and the lowest rank of commissioned officer is (Italian: Guardiamarina)which translates to candidate Midshipman and Midshipman, respectively.[53]

Comparative ranks and insignia

Country Equivalent Rank Insignia
Brazil Guarda-marinha[54]
File:Guarda marinha.gif
Guarda marinha insignia
Canada Naval Cadet / Aspirant de marine[55]
File:Navy sleeve NCdt.png
Naval Cadet insignia
France Aspirant[56]
Aspirant insignia
Germany Seekadett/Fähnrich zur See/Oberfähnrich zur See[57]
Italy Aspirante guardiamarina[58]
Aspirante guardia- marina insignia
Netherlands Adelborst[59]
File:Adelborst2eklasse.PNG
Adelborst der tweede klasse insignia.
Portugal Aspirante[60]
Spain Guardiamarina/Aspirante[61]
Guardiamarina (left, 4th year) and Aspirante (right, 2nd year) insignia

See also


Template:US Officer ranks collapsed

Footnotes

  1. ^ "Ranks in Nelson's Navy". Port Cities London. National Maritime Museum. Retrieved 2009-02-20.
  2. ^ a b National Defence Act "Text of the National Defence Act from the Department of Justice of Canada". Retrieved 2009-04-01. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  3. ^ Kearns, Patricia (1998). Historical Dictionary of the United States Navy. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810834065.
  4. ^ "Royal Navy and Marine Customs and Traditions". Retrieved 2008-12-28.
  5. ^ Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 2008-07-25.
  6. ^ Dean King (2001). A Sea of Words: Lexicon and Companion for Patrick O'Brian's Seafaring Tales. Henry Holt. p. 299. ISBN 0805066152.
  7. ^ a b c Lavery 1989, p. 89
  8. ^ a b c d e Lavery 1989, p. 90
  9. ^ a b Phillipson 1998, p. 2
  10. ^ Winton 1995, p. 267
  11. ^ Rodger, N.A.M. (1986). The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. p. 216. ISBN 0870219871.
  12. ^ a b c d Lavery 1989, p. 93
  13. ^ "Charles Cobb RN". Retrieved 2009-03-05.
  14. ^ a b c Walker 1938, p. 188
  15. ^ Walker 1938, p. 190
  16. ^ a b Walker 1938, p. 36
  17. ^ L. R. Hamersly & Co., ed. (1881). A Naval Encyclopædia. L. R. Hamersly & Co. p. 16. Retrieved 2009-04-01. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |city= ignored (|location= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ a b "A Brief History of the US Naval Academy". Retrieved 2008-08-07.
  19. ^ a b L. R. Hamersly & Co., ed. (1881). A Naval Encyclopædia. L. R. Hamersly & Co. p. 496. Retrieved 2009-04-01. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |city= ignored (|location= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ L. R. Hamersly & Co., ed. (1881). A Naval Encyclopædia. L. R. Hamersly & Co. p. 14. Retrieved 2009-04-01. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |city= ignored (|location= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ "Naval Discipline Act 1957 (c.53)". pp. 19, section 133(1). Retrieved 2009-03-19.
  22. ^ "Uniform and Medals:Research guide U1: Uniforms: The National Maritime Museum Collection". Retrieved 2009-03-06. Midshipmen's uniforms have remained unchanged since 1787
  23. ^ Lavery 1989, p. 108
  24. ^ "Royal Navy Officer". Retrieved 2009-03-06.
  25. ^ "Initial Officer Training". Retrieved 2009-03-06. This document uses 'Officer Cadet' repeatedly as opposed to the substantive ranks.
  26. ^ "M Class - Muster". Retrieved 2008-12-17.
  27. ^ a b Brackin, William L. (1991). Naval Orientation (NAVEDTRA 12966) (PDF). United States Navy Naval Education and Training Command. p. 9-9. Retrieved 2009-04-01.
  28. ^ "NROTC FAQs". Retrieved 2009-03-04.
  29. ^ a b Department of the Navy United States Navy Uniform Regulations (NAVPERS 15665I) Article 6101.1 . December 2008
  30. ^ "Service Obligation After Graduation". Retrieved 2009-03-04.
  31. ^ Department of the Navy COMDTMIDN INSTRUCTION 1020.3A MIDSHIPMEN UNIFORM REGULATIONS. U.S. Naval Academy, 2003.
  32. ^ "U.S. Naval Academy Facts, Figures and History". Retrieved 2009-03-04.
  33. ^ "Midshipman - Royal Australian Navy". Retrieved 2009-03-16.
  34. ^ "Australian Navy Cadets - Cadet Midshipman - Opportunities Ahoy". Retrieved 2008-12-30.
  35. ^ "What It Takes to Become a Naval Officer in Five Easy Steps" (PDF). p. 18. Retrieved 2009-03-06. Graduates from a four-year course of study are granted the rank of Sub Lieutenant on entry to the Navy. Graduates from a three-year course are granted the rank of Midshipman.
  36. ^ "Single Service Training". Retrieved 2009-02-24.
  37. ^ a b "The Australian Defense Force Academy - Training at ADFA". Retrieved 2009-02-24.
  38. ^ "University of New South Wales". Retrieved 2009-02-24.
  39. ^ "RNZN - Midshipman Rank Slide". Retrieved 2009-03-16.
  40. ^ a b "RNZN Midshipman Rank Slide". Retrieved 2009-03-04.
  41. ^ "RNZN Sub Lieutenant Rank Slide". Retrieved 2009-03-04.
  42. ^ "Rank Insignia". Retrieved 2009-03-19.
  43. ^ "About the Military Academy". Retrieved 2009-03-19.
  44. ^ "Old Occupations". Retrieved 2009-04-06.
  45. ^ a b c Lavery 1989, p. 281
  46. ^ Lavery 1989, p. 284
  47. ^ a b Harding, Richard (1999). Seapower and naval warfare, 1650-1830. Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press. p. 145. ISBN 1557508887.
  48. ^ "Historia". Retrieved 2009-04-09.
  49. ^ "'The axe had never sounded': place, people and heritage of Recherche Bay, Tasmania". Retrieved 07-04-2009. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  50. ^ "French Training Squadron for Naval Officers" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-04-06. The more general term élève officier translated to 'Midshipman'.
  51. ^ "le Grand Robert". Retrieved 2009-04-06.Aspriant: Élève de deuxième année de l'École navale translates to second year student at the Naval Academy.
  52. ^ "Guardiamarina". Oxford Spanish Dictionary. Oxford Language Dictionaries Online. Retrieved 2009-04-08.
  53. ^ "Guardiamarina". Oxford-Paravia Italian Dictionary. Oxford Language Dictionaries Online. Retrieved 2009-04-08.
  54. ^ "INSÍGNIAS PARA PRAÇAS". Retrieved 2009-03-16.
  55. ^ "Army Rank and Appointment Insignia". Retrieved 2009-03-16.
  56. ^ "Les grades de la Marine nationale". Retrieved 2009-03-16.
  57. ^ "Uniformen" (PDF). p. 20. Retrieved 2009-03-18.
  58. ^ "Gradi". Retrieved 2009-03-16.
  59. ^ "Dutch Navy Ranks and Abbreviations". Retrieved 2009-04-06.
  60. ^ "Postos". Retrieved 2009-03-16.
  61. ^ "Badges and Emblems". Retrieved 2009-03-16.

References

  • Lavery, Brian (1989). Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organization. Annapolis, Md: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0870212583. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  • Phillipson, David (1996). Band of Brothers: Boy Seamen in the Royal Navy 1800 - 1956. Stroud: Sutton. ISBN 0750919760. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  • Walker, C.F. (1938). Young Gentlemen. London: Longmans, Green. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  • Winton, John (1995). "Life And Education in a Technically Evolving Navy: 1815-1925". In J.R. Hill (ed.). Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-211675-4.
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