User:Mrshaba/Experiments
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Environmental Energy Flux & Human Energy Consumption Comparison Table 1.5
| Source and Use | Total Physical Suppy | Technical Potential |
|---|---|---|
| Solar | 3,850 ZJ [1] | 3.38 ZJ [2] |
| Wind | 110 ZJ [3] | 2.25 ZJ [4] |
| Biomass | 3.0 ZJ [5] | 0.104 ZJ [6] |
| Hydro | 0.367 ZJ [7] | 0.052 ZJ [8] |
| Electricity (2005) | --- | 0.0567 ZJ [9] |
| Primary energy use (2005) | --- | 0.487 ZJ [10] |
|
|
|
When I think back on all the crap I learned in high school It's a wonder I can think at all And though my lack of education hasn't hurt me none I can read the writing on the wall
- Kodachrome
- They give us those nice bright colors
- They give us the greens of summers
- Makes you think all the world's a sunny day, oh yeah
- I got a Nikon camera
- I love to take a photograph
- So mama don't take my Kodachrome away
If you took all the girls I knew when I was single And brought them all together for one night I know they'd never match my sweet imagination Everything looks worse in black and white
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors
- Biomass - .2-.5 ZJ/year - pg. 37
- Hydro .05 ZJ/year - pg. 37
- Wind 5 ZJ/year - pg. 37
- Solar 1.5-50 ZJ/year - pg. 37
Total Physical Supply vs. Technically usable from Photovoltaic Guidebook
- Biomass - 5.5 ZJ (total reserves)/.11 Z
- Hydro - .275 ZJ /.04125 ZJ
- Wind - 55 ZJ /.01375 ZJ
- Solar - 783.75 ZJ (irradiation on continents only)/1.045 ZJ
- Solar technical potential - 1.584 ZJ [1]
Concentrating solar power
Concentrated sunlight has been used to perform useful tasks since the time of ancient China. A legend claims Archimedes used polished shields to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and repel them from Syracuse. In 1866, Auguste Mouchout used a parabolic trough to produce steam for the first solar steam engine, and subsequent developments led to the use of concentrating solar-powered devices for irrigation, refrigeration and locomotion.[11]
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated light is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exist; the most developed are the solar trough, parabolic dish and solar power tower. These methods vary in the way they track the Sun and focus light. In all these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.[12]
A solar trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The reflector is made to follow the Sun during the daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. Trough systems are the most mature CSP technology.[13] The SEGS plants in California and Acciona's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada are representatives of this technology.[13][14]
A parabolic dish system consists of a stand-alone parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned at the reflector's focal point. The reflector tracks the Sun along two axes. Parabolic dish systems give the highest efficiency among CSP technologies.[15] The 50 kW Big Dish in Canberra, Australia is an example of this technology.[13]
A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to concentrate light on a central receiver atop a tower. Power towers are less advanced than trough systems but offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability.[13] The Solar Two in Barstow, California and the Planta Solar 10 in Sanlucar la Mayor, Spain are representatives of this technology.[13][16]
Multijunction photovoltaic cells have achieved over 40 percent efficiency in the laboratory and been proposed for power generation by concentrated photovoltaics.
Organization
Hmmm... Well... Hmmm... Come back soon now ya hear...
- Top Priority Pages - Solar energy, Solar cell, Photovoltaics, Photovoltaic system, Solar thermal, Solar water heating, Concentrating solar power
- (Main Category and Page) Solar energy
- (Category) Solar companies
- (Category) Solar power companies
- International Automated Systems Inc. Publicity page. I'd like to know what a blade-less turbine is though.
- Miasolé Another press release page. This page has an info box though which is nice. MW production should probably be part of the info box.
- International Solar Electric Technology Another press release page.
- Isofoton Needs current info. It seems all of these company pages should list a current production capability.
- (Category) Solar thermal companies
- (Category) Solar power companies
- (Category) Solar power
- (Category and Page) Photovoltaics
- Photovoltaic system
- Solar cell - POV issues, History section is jumbled - Hit the high points of the technology by decade, The "Three generations of solar cell" section is POV and the Nanosolar number is very wrong. All of these technologies are young technologies. The section seems to be written in a way to discredit current technology in favor of upcoming technologies. The page needs a picture to describe the electron-hole pair generation process. The "The p-n junction" blurb is excellent. The "Sun unit" blurb is poorly worded. Start with a 1 sun example over a given area then compare an X sun example. "Electron-hole" pair seems to be more common than "hole-electron". Be consistent. (Continue from Quantum efficiency)
- CPV
- BIPV Needs rewrite. Focus on application rather than incentives. What do BIPV do compared to conventional PV? They form part of the building envelope. Window, facade, roof. Subsidies and incentives are secondary and the existing information is generally incorrect.
- (Category and Page) Solar cell
- Graezel, PEC, etc.
- (Category and Page) Solar cell
- (Category and Page) Concentrating Solar Power
- Parabolic trough
- Parabolic dish
- Power Tower
- CPV
- (Category and Page) Photovoltaics
- (Category and Page) Solar chemical
- Photoelectrochemical cells
- (Category and Page) Solar chemical
- (Category) Solar lighting
- Daylighting
- Hybrid solar lighting
- (Category) Solar lighting
- (Category) Solar projects
- (Category) Future solar projects
- Desertec Future project publicity. Needs basic MOS cleanup. Should probably have a Solar power plans subcategory for all of these "Grand Plans".
- (Category) Future solar projects
- (Category and Page) Solar thermal
- Solar cooker
- Solar heating
- Solar water heating
- Solar air heating
- Solar cooling
- (Category and Page) Solar thermal
- (Category) Concentrating Solar
- Scheffler reflector
- Solar bowl
- Parabolic trough
- Parabolic dish
- Power Tower
- Fresnel reflector
- (Category) Concentrating solar thermal
- STEP (falls into both CST and CSP)
- Solar kitchen
- (Category and Page) Concentrating solar power
- Parabolic trough
- Parabolic dish
- Power tower
- CPV
- STEP
- (Category) Concentrating solar thermal
- (Category) Concentrating Solar
- (Category) Solar powered devices
- (Category) Solar vehicles
- Categories to add
- Solar powered devices
- Solar chemical
- Category names to change
- Solar concentrating systems and concentrating systems are redundant - Go with Concentrating solar
- Solar powered vehicles - Go with Solar vehicles
- Extra terrestrial photovoltaics - Go with Space photovoltaics, Space solar power or Solar power in space
- Categories to delete and/or merge
- Category:Solar concentrating control systems
- Category:Solar concentrating systems - move to Concentrating Solar
- Category:Solar water pumping - leave the one page unsorted for now
- Category:Solar energy in the third world - put solar cooker in solar thermal category
- Category:Solar energy science - see how leaving basic terms unsorted works
- Category:Solar cities - go with Future solar projects - include grand plans like Desertec, Masdar City etc.
- Category:Solar tracking systems -
- Category:Solar towers - group Solar updraft tower with Category:solar power
- Pages to delete and/or merge
- Solar Tuki Does not seem notable.
- Solar powered pumping should fall within a more generic category - Possibly "Solar powered devices"
- Possibly a Solar competitions category (Solar Decathalon, World Solar Challenge, the South Africa race etc.)
- What are the essential parts?
- What to avoid? Advantages vs. Disadvantages (within reason), Poorly made cost comparisons.
(Trough, Dish etc.) should be covered in more depth in an individual article.
- Timeline of solar cells Needs pictures. From then to now.
- Page assessments
- Air mass coefficient needs a rewrite. Include an example comparing different locations.
- Annualized geo solar merged with Seasonal thermal store
- Balance of system should be merged with photovoltaic system
- California Solar Initiative Not bad... Needs some more details and minor cleanup. The Solar energy category probably needs a Solar incentive subcategory to group Feed-in tariffs, CSI etc.
- Central solar heating Good info. Nice table. Needs general cleanup
- Concentrator photovoltaics Possibly merge into Concentrating solar power
- CooKit Probably needs to be integrated into one of the solar cooker pages.
- Current solar income Variation of Earth's energy budget. The term does not seem notable enough for a unique article.
- Deployment of solar power to energy grids Essayish. Needs a lot of work. Could be replaced by a: List of solar power projects
- Dye-sensitized solar cells Stand-alone page... Needs weasel word cleanup.
- Eco-Drive Needs some cleanup. Balanced description of the PV-rechargeable battery combo vs. non-rechargeable battery watches.
- Energy tower (downdraft) Highly speculative, much like the Solar space power page. Looks like some name dropping and cheer leading going on.
- Evergreen Solar Needs cleanup. I added some categories to the bottom of the page. There seems to be a category inflation problem that will have to be revisited.
- HelioVolt Needs cleanup. I'm not sure about including the VC rounds. Who they are, what they make and how they make it should cover it.
- High efficiency solar cells Random facts. The NREL graph is superior
- Hybrid solar cell - Many of these small PV tech pages could go into one Types of PV cells
- Intermittent power source No comment.
- List of concentrating solar thermal power companies I'm thinking we should have a Solar list subcategory.
- Maximum power point tracker Very informative and well written. Needs a little bit of cleanup.
- Model solar car Does not seem notable.
- Multijunction photovoltaic cell Could merge into a Types of PV cells page
Nanocrystal solar cell The coverage under Quantum dotis good. Could merge remaining parts into a Types of PV cells page.
- Nanosolar One of the more skewed press release style pages. These company pages really needs a template.
- Parabolic trough I think much more information from other articles should be pulled in here. The Pop culture factoid can go.
- Passive solar This is a high to top priority page within the solar energy category. The breakdown of info on the page is confusing. The Active vs. Passive layout should be avoided. It could possibly be broken down by passive lighting, passive heating, passive cooling etc. This page needs to be improved.
Passive solar lighting Merge with Daylighting
- Photoelectrochemical cell Goes into both photovoltaic and solar chemical subcategories
- Photoelectrolysis Goes into Solar chemical subcategory
- Photovoltaic array Merge into Photovoltaic system along with Photovoltaic module
- Photovoltaic inverter - This is a BOS component - Merge into BOS section of Photovoltaic system
- Photovoltaic module Merge with Photovoltaic system
- Photovoltaic system - Central page
- Polymer solar cell Holy moly nice graphics. Types of PV cells page candidate. The Types of PV cells needs its own project to characterize these with minimum redundancy
- Quantum efficiency of a solar cell Hard to characterize where this goes.. Looks like it is already covered on the Solar cell page
- Rectenna Doesn't need its own subcategory. Should go with Solar space power somehow
- Rinky Dink Does not seem notable.
- Solar cell Should be a top priority alone page
- Solar cell fabric Does not seem notable enough for a dedicated page. Should be merged.
- Solar lamp Does not seem notable enough for a dedicated page.
- Solar mirror Should probably be broken up between several other pages... Heliostat, CSP, SSP ect.
- Solar panel Needs to be merged with Photovoltaic system. Also needs a disambiguation page
- Solar-powered pump - Short page. No sources.
- Solar roof shingles - Does not seem notable. Mention in a section of the BIPV page.
- Solar shingles - Does not seem notable. Mention in a section of the BIPV page.
- Solar panels on spacecraft - Needs a review
- Solar power satellite Long. Remove comparison to XXX paragraphs. Extraterrestrial intelligence and Energy in global winters?
- Solar power tower Should talk about history, performance, various projects etc.
- Solar Tuki Does not seem notable.
- String ribbon Put back on the Evergreen Solar page.
- Total Spectrum Solar Concentrator Merge with other concentrating stuff. Probably the CPV page
DDE
Between 1970 and 1983, photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but dropping oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 to 1996. PV development has accelerated since 1997 due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns (see Kyoto Protocol), and the improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies. At 20 to 40 cents/kWh the price of photovoltaic electricity is higher than conventional electricity rates but technological development and competition in the PV sector is expected to bring prices down to grid parity in many regions between 2015 and 2020.[17] Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity reached 10.6 GW at the end of 2007.[18] Completed in 2007, the 14 MW power station in Clark County, Nevada and the 20 MW site in Beneixama, Spain and are characteristic of the trend toward larger photovoltaic power stations in the US and Europe.
- Installed solar PV prices are projected to decline from an average $5.50-$7.00 peak watt (15-32 cents/kWh) today to $3.02-$3.82 peak watt (8-18 cents kWh) in 2015 to $1.43-$1.82 peak watt (4-8 cents kWh) by 2025. Clean Edge
- 21.32-82.77 cents/kWhsolarbuzz
Photovoltaics
| Years | Total
installation |
Yearly
production |
$/Watt |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1970-1983 | ~100 kW → 59 MW | none → 20 MW | 100 → 7.75 |
| 1984-1996 | 59 MW → 699 MW | 20 MW → 89 MW | 7.75 → 4.00 |
| 1997-2007 | 699 MW → 10.6 GW | 89 MW → 3 GW | 4.00 → 3.40 |
In 2006, Germany, adding 1,050 megawatts, became the first country to install more than one gigawatt in a single year.
There are now more than 300,000 buildings with PV systems in Germany, over triple the initial goal of the 100,000 Roofs Program launched in 1998. Growth is set to remain strong, as a feed-in tariff of 49¢ per kilowatt-hour will remain in place through 2009.
Of the world’s PV manufacturers in 2007, Sharp (Japan), Q-Cells (Germany), and Suntech (China) claimed the top three positions. (See data.) But after holding the top spot for more than six years, Sharp, hampered by limited access to polysilicon, is likely to post only a 4-percent growth in production in 2007, well below the 50 percent industry average. However, Sharp’s annual thin-film production capacity is on track to increase from 15 megawatts today to 1,000 megawatts per year in 2010.
Other useful government incentives include a budget allocation of 20.5 billion yen ($186 million) in 2003—for research and development, demonstration programs, and market incentives—and net-metering (feeding excess energy back into the power grid). Within nine years, from 1994 to 2003, these programs helped Japan position itself as the world leader in both production and installation of solar cells.
While the off-grid sector was the initial major market for solar cells, the grid-connected sector has grown significantly since 1996, after the implementation of the 70,000 Roofs Program in Japan. In 2003, the grid-connected sector represented 77 percent of the total market worldwide.
Italy (2001) 10,000 Roofs Program: Regions offer different investment subsidies to promote building-integrated photovoltaic applications. http://www.earth-policy.org/Indicators/2004/indicator12.htm
Sharp Corporation continues to dominate the PV scene with 17.2%, but lost considerable market shares due to a very unusual low production growth of just 1%, despite the fact that the production capacity increased to 600 MW in FY 2006 [Ikk 2007a]. An explanation could be that Sharp did not have enough silicon feedstock. sunbird.jrc.it/refsys/pdf/PV_StatusReport_2007.pdf
In order for the solar industry to make a systematic penetration in to the electricity segment, installed solar system costs will need to drop from around $8-10/Wp to $3/Wp. This would continue the trend shown above of falling solar electricity costs over the last twenty-five years. A push to $3/Wp would bring solar energy costs from the present 30 cents per kilowatt-hour to around 10 cents per kilowatt-hour, which would allow it to compete more strongly with other renewables and capture a significant share of the electricity market.
http://www.solarbuzz.com/StatsCosts.htm
- Source - Late 1990s
- Source - Reference List
- Source - SWH Bar Graph
- Source - Martinot's list of sources
- Source - Martinot
- Source - EIA
- Source - Production number 1975-2003
- Source - $/Watt numbers
- Source - Deployment
- Source - Heliotronic
- Prospects for PV: a learning curve analysis Bob van der Zwaana,b ,*, Ari Rablc
- Commercial production of PV began in 1972 (Maycock) or 1976 (Harmon).
- While PV was highly successful in extraterrestrial applications, commercialization on Earth was limited due high prices. Ironically, the price barriers were the result of a spaced based focus of development which aimed for high efficiency, low weight, and reliability.
- "Continuously declining cost of transistors, ($1 in 1968 to .01 in 1976 to .00001 in 1992)." - http://www2.austin.cc.tx.us/HongXiao/overview/history-semi/sld012.htm
"Semiconductor Technology
The computer industry, especially transistor semiconductor technology, also contributed to the development of PV cells. Transistors and PV cells are made from similar materials and operate on the basis of similar physical mechanisms. As a result, advances in transistor research provided a steady flow of new information about PV cell technology. (Today, however, this technology transfer process often works in reverse, as advances in PV research and development are sometimes adopted by the semiconductor industry.) " http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=1155
- "Historically, no energy technology has changed more dramatically than photovoltaics (PV), the cost of which has declined by a factor of nearly 100 since the 1950s."
- Notes
- Perlin mentions $20/watt costs in 1973 - - http://www.californiasolarcenter.org/solareclips/2002.07/20020709-8.html
- Berman's new company is Zentox - http://www.zentox.com/contact_zentox.html
- Johnathan Dorn -
- Eric Martinot -
- Declining manufacturing costs (dropping at three to five percent a year in recent years) are expanding the range of cost-effective uses. The average lowest retail cost of a large photovoltaic array declined from $7.50 to $4.00 per watt between 1990 and 2005.
- Deployment of solar power depends largely upon local conditions and requirements. Considerations include insolation, local power cost, local affluence
- The European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) reported that the photovoltaic world market (all types of PV systems, i.e. big power plants, private net connected systems and off grid PV) in 2007 grew by over 40 %, with approximately 2.3 gigawatt (GW) of newly installed capacity."
- Drivers
- Electricity and fuel prices and the cost of T&D
- Semiconductor developments, reduced kerf loss, thinner wafers, better faster processing equipment, material knowledge
- Educated/trained workforce
- Affluent public
| Years | Cummulative
Installed Megawatts |
Growth |
|---|---|---|
| 1975-1979 | 2 → 12.75 MW | 638% |
| 1980-1984 | 12.75 → 81 MW | 635% |
| 1985-1989 | 81 → 238 MW | 294% |
| 1990-1994 | 238 → 530 MW | 223% |
| 1995-1999 | 530 → 1179 MW | 222% |
| 2000-2004 | 1179 → 4075 MW | 346% |
| 2005-2007 | 4075 → 10600 MW | 260% |
Notes
- SAIC
- Back to solar energy.
- DST in 1980
- energy savings of DST for California equal 0.002 EJ out of 1 EJ total electricity use (553 GWh out of 283,304 GWh). At one fifth of 1% this seems hopelessly small although my math could be off.
- fuel upgrading
- megaron
- Renewable energy in Germany:[2]
- Specific mention: Professor Jeffrey Cook’s classic book ‘Passive Cooling.’
- The Fifty-Year History of the International Solar Energy Society and its National Sections, Volumes 1 and 2, edited by Karl Boer,
- Mike McCormack’s Solar Heating and Cooling Act of 1974
- Jeffrey Cook’s book Passive Cooling (1989)
- CHAPIN, D.M., FULLER, C.S. and PEARSON, G.L.
A new p-n junction photocell for converting solar radiation into electrical power, Journal of Applied Physics. 25, 1954: 676-677
- To do:[3]
- German Renewable energy page:[4]
- Something:[5]
- 129,024 Btu/gal - [6]
- Solar power is a synonym of solar energy when used in a technological sense or...
- FA [TEAM]
Making the installed capacity of solar thermal collectors comparable with that of other energy sources, solar thermal experts from 7 countries agreed upon a methodology to convert installed collector area into solar thermal capacity at a joint meeting of the IEA SHC Programme and major solar thermal trade associations, that was held in September 2004 in Gleisdorf, Austria. The represented associations from Austria, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and the USA as well as the European Solar Thermal Industry Federation (ESTIF) and the IEA SHC Programme agreed to use a factor of 0.7 kWth/m2 to derive the nominal capacity from the area of installed collectors.
From: 2003 Report See also: 2007 Report
a. ^ Note on 'installed capacity' and 'potential energy'. The former is an estimate of the maximum productive output of a given technology or individual generation station at a single point in time. The latter takes into account the likely intermittency of energy supply and is a measure of output over a period of time. Thus, for example, individual wind turbines may have a 'capacity factor' of between 15% and 45% depending on their location, with a higher capacity factor giving a greater potential energy output for a given installed capacity. The 'potential energy' column is thus an estimate based on a variety of assumptions including the installed capacity. Although 'potential energy' is in some ways a more useful method of comparing the current output and future potential of different technologies, using it would require cumbersome explanations of all the assumptions involved in each example, so installed capacity figures are generally used.
Solar Industrial Process Heat (SIPH) is an ideal application of solar energy. As a matter of fact, 30-50% of the thermal energy needed in industrial processes is below 250?C, which can be easily provided by low- and medium-temperature solar collectors. Consequently, this application of solar energy is expected to grow as the cost of fossil fuels goes up.Process heat
linear fresnel
As a result of solar energy's intermittent nature, the growth in worldwide usage will be constrained until reliable and low-cost technology for storing solar energy becomes available. The sun's energy is stored on a daily basis by nature through the process of photosynthesis in foodstuffs, wood and other biomass. The storage of energy from intermittent and random solar radiation can be achieved artificially, by using energy storage technologies (thermal storage, chemically-charged batteries, hydro storage, flywheels, hydrogen, and compressed air), some well-known and widely-applied, whilst others are still under development.
PV market deployment is to a large extent dependent on the political framework of any given country. Support mechanisms are defined in national laws. The introduction, modification or fading out of such support schemes can have profound consequences on PV industries. D. Yogi Goswami EPIA
PV potential calculation
The rooftop area, and therefore potential space for PV in the United States, is very large. Two previous estimates of the total available roof space for PV in the United States are 6 and 10 billion square meters, even after eliminating 35% to 80% of the total roof space due to shading and inappropriate orientation [6,7]. The lower value also does not include certain industrial and agricultural buildings. While fairly rough estimates, these values provide some idea of the potential resource base. Assuming a typical PV system performance of 100 watts per square meter (W/m2) (equivalent to an average insolation of 1000 W/m2 and a 10% AC system efficiency), this rooftop area represents a potential installed capacity of 600 to 1000 GW. At an average capacity factor of 17%, this installed capacity could provide 900-1500 terawatt-hours (TWh) annually. This represents about 25% to 40% of the total U.S. electricity consumption in 2004.
6. Chaudhari, M., L. Frantzis, and T. Hoff, PV Grid Connected Market Potential under a Cost Breakthrough Scenario, Navigant Consulting, Inc., 2004. Available at www.ef.org/documents/EFFinal- Final2.pdf 7. Potential for Building Integrated Photovoltaics, International Energy Agency, 2001.
Although improvements in levelized cost of energy (LCOE) will allow CSP to reach 5 – 7 cents/kWh and compete with traditional generation technologies, at today’s 12-14 cents/kWh it is too expensive
A linear Fresnel power plant uses a series of long, narrow, shallow-curvature mirrors to focus light onto one or more linear absorbers positioned above the mirrors and generates power using a traditional steam turbine. These systems aim to offer lower overall costs by sharing a heat-absorbing element between several mirrors while still using the line-focus geometry that allows reduced complexity in the tracking mechanism. The absorber is stationary and so fluid couplings are not required. The mirrors also do not need to support the absorber, so they are structurally simpler. When suitable aiming strategies are used, this can allow a denser packing of mirrors on available land area. [www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/csp_prospectus_112807.pdf CSP goals]
Japan has the most successful photovoltaics (PV) industry and mature market in the world. By the end of 2004, Japan became the first country to install a GigaWatt of PV. Through aggressive government policies beginning with the SunShine Program launched in 1974, and more recent subsidies promoting deployments, Japan leads the world in PV production, deployment, and exports. PV powered homes are now a common site in Japan. While Japan was the third largest PV manufacturer a decade ago, it now dominates PV manufacturing with well over 40 percent of global production. The Japanese government is making solar energy an important part of its overall energy mix, with a goal of 10 percent electricity production from PV by 2030. They seek to reduce renewables costs to be on par with conventionally generated electricity. Likewise, Japan is a signatory to the Kyoto protocol and sees solar as a viable part of the solution to meeting CO2 reduction targets. There are three key reasons why Japan has become the global PV leader: [7]
- These devices use wind and sunlight as a substitute for electricity and natural gas.
- Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from solar resources (wood, biomass) to fossil fuels. SEE: Solar resources vs. Fossil fuels
One of the most promising applications for active solar heating worldwide is the drying of agricultural products. In a recent study, the potential amount of energy that could be displaced using solar in this market was estimated to be between 657PJ and 1530 PJ annually. The most promising market for solar drying is generally, but not always, those crops that are mechanically dried at lower temperatures.
The total rooftop generating potential of the OECD countries is estimated at 1,100 GWp (1990); this would be sufficient to meet between 14 and 19 percent of the OECD’s estimated 6.8 million GWh annual electricity consumption. [iris37.worldbank.org/.../PRDDContainer.nsf/All+Documents/85256D2400766CC785256FFE0069202C/$File/energy10.pdf - ]
- Netherlands - 14% space heating demand dwellings is solar passive gain (not in statistics) - www.copernicus.uu.nl/uce-uu/downloads/Presentaties/Sonderborg%2017Sep03%20EL.pdf
- Greenhouse
Sources
- PV incentive programs:[8]
SoSo Sources
Solar architecture
Panel surface area
Technical potential
- 440,000TWh/year [15]]
Bad forecasts
- [16] - "Photovoltaics: According to the study Solar Electricity 2010 undertaken under the leadership of the European Photovoltaic Association (EPIA) an enhanced European scenario with additional investments as high as € 2.5 billion would allow a cumulative installed PV power capacity of 4,000 MWp to be achieved. Current trends, however, analysed by EurObserv’ER 2001 barometer, lead to predictions of a cumulated total of 1,790 MWp in 201073. This figure adds up to less than 54 per cent of the 2010 White Paper target. In 2003 probably only 37 per cent of the target installation of 1095 MWp will be in place. Consequently, between 2003 and 2010 considerable accelerated efforts are needed to meet even the 2010 target by 54 per cent."
Heating and cooling
"Well designed policies have achieved encouraging results in leading countries. For instance, Germany has nearly 5 GW of solar water heaters installed (around 750 000 units); about 30% of houses in Sweden have geothermal heat pumps with a total capacity of nearly 4 GW; and Canada has over 3 million homes producing around 100PJ (2.4 Mtoe) of heat from woody biomass each year with four times this amount produced for industrial heat giving a total equivalent to around 12 Mt of oil each year. Yet other countries with similar conditions make minimal use of their renewable energy resources."
"Demand for heating accounts for a significant portion of world total energy demand. The building sector consumes 35.3% of final energy demand of which 75% is for space and domestic water heating(IEA 2006a). In Europe the final energy demand for heating (48%) is higher than for electricity (20%) or transport (32%) (EREC, 2006). It can be even higher in regions with long, cold winters such as northern North America. For cooling of buildings and refrigeration applications the demand for energy is growing but the data are uncertain."
"A mashrabiya is a screened bay window popular in the Arabic Middle East. It shades, ventilates, and provides evaporative cooling. Cairo, Egypt.(Photograph by Mostafa Howeedy.)"
Solar rights
" "Solar energy device" means any identifiable facility, equipment, apparatus, or the like, including a photovoltaic cell application, that is applicable to a single-family residential dwelling or townhouse and makes use of solar energy for heating, cooling, or reducing the use of other types of energy dependent upon fossil fuel for generation; provided that "solar energy device" shall not include skylights or windows. [L 1992, c 268, §1; am L 2005, c 157, §2]"
Wikisources
- Update citations using:[17]
- Manual of style:[18]
- Punctuation for quotation:[19]
- Disruptive editing:[20]
- How to create graphs for WP:[21]
- Use Renewable energy in Scotland for pointers on format.
- Request for comment:Rfc
- Image uploading and editing help (Rules of thumb - Use JPEG format for photographic images; SVG format for icons, logos, drawings, maps, flags, and such;):[22]
- I like it:[23]
- Permission for picture:[24]
- Request for page protection:[25]
- How to make subpages:[26]
- How to make tables:[27]
- Semi-protection guide
Table example
| I | don't | know | karatay | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| But | I | know | karazee |
Yow | |||||||
| Goodgod | goona | kiss | myself | huh | summylove | jumpback | Yeow | ||||
| Template:Country data World Big ball | Abra | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | I'm lime green | ||
 European Union a big ring
|
Cadabra | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | I'm springgreen | ||
| 15 |  Germany Der spreckles
|
16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | I'm cyan |
| α | cell2
|
the original table again |
PV Graph
| Year | Production | Growth rate | Source | Cummulative
installed |
Source | Real $/kW | Source | Inflation rate | Adjusted $/kW | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1966 | Pro | Grw | ref | Cum | ref | ~$100 | Ref 4 | Inf | Adj | ref |
| 1966 | Pro | Grw | ref | Cum | ref | ~$200 | Ref 3 | Inf | Adj | ref |
| 1967 | Pro | Grw | ref | Cum | ref | Real | ref | Inf | Adj | ref |
| 1968 | Pro | Grw | ref | 95 kW | Ref 7 | Real | ref | Inf | Adj | ref |
| 1969 | Pro | Grw | ref | Cum | ref | Real | ref | Inf | Adj | ref |
| 1970 | Pro | Grw | ref | Cum | ref | Real | ref | Inf | Adj | ref |
| 1971 | 0.1 | Grw | ref | Cum | ref | $25 | Ref 6 | Inf | Adj | Ref 1 |
| 1972 | Pro | Grw | ref | Cum | ref | Real | ref | Inf | Adj | Ref 1 |
| 1973 | 15-30 kW | Grw | Ref 5 | Cum | ref | $20 | Ref 5 | Inf | Adj | Ref 1 |
| 1974 | 15-30 kW | Grw | Ref 5 | Cum | ref | $20 | Ref 5 | Inf | Adj | Ref 1 |
| 1975 | pro | Grw | ref | 2 | Ref 2 | 30.00 | Ref 2 | 9.20% | $116.55 | Ref 1 |
| 1976 | 2 | Grw | Note 1 | 4 | Ref 2 | 25.00 | Ref 2 | 5.75% | $91.02 | Ref 1 |
| 1977 | 2.25 | 12.5% | Note 1 | 6.25 | Ref 2 | 20.00 | Ref 2 | 6.50% | $69.20 | Ref 1 |
| 1978 | 2.5 | 11.1% | Note 1 | 8.75 | Ref 2 | 15.00 | Ref 2 | 7.62% | $48.58 | Ref 1 |
| 1979 | 4 | 60% | Note 1 | 12.75 | Ref 2 | 13.00 | Ref 2 | 11.22% | $38.53 | Ref 1 |
| 1980 | 6.5 | 62.5% | Note 1 | 19.25 | Ref 2 | 12.00 | Ref 2 | 13.58% | $31.22 | Ref 1 |
| 1981 | 7.75 | 19.2% | Note 1 | 27 | Ref 2 | 10.00 | Ref 2 | 10.35% | $23.27 | Ref 1 |
| 1982 | 12 | 54.8% | Note 1 | 39 | Ref 2 | 9.00 | Ref 2 | 6.16% | $19.32 | Ref 1 |
| 1983 | 20 | 66.7% | Note 1 | 59 | Ref 2 | 7.75 | Ref 2 | 3.22% | $16.04 | Ref 1 |
| 1984 | 22 | 5% | Note 1 | 81 | Ref 2 | 7.00 | Ref 2 | 4.39% | $13.90 | Ref 1 |
| 1985 | 26 | 18.2% | Note 1 | 107 | Ref 2 | 6.50 | Ref 2 | 3.55% | $12.47 | Ref 1 |
| 1986 | 28 | 7.7% | Note 1 | 135 | Ref 2 | 5.00 | Ref 2 | 1.91% | $9.23 | Ref 1 |
| 1987 | 29 | 3.6% | Note 1 | 164 | Ref 2 | 4.00 | Ref 2 | 3.66% | $7.28 | Ref 1 |
| 1988 | 34 | 17.2% | Note 1 | 198 | Ref 2 | 3.75 | Ref 2 | 4.08% | $6.56 | Ref 1 |
| 1989 | 40 | 17.6% | Note 1 | 238 | Ref 2 | 4.25 | Ref 2 | 4.83% | $7.10 | Ref 1 |
| 1990 | 47 | 17.5% | Note 1 | 285 | Ref 2 | 4.75 | Ref 2 | 5.39% | $7.55 | Ref 1 |
| 1991 | 55 | 17% | Note 1 | 340 | Ref 2 | 4.50 | Ref 2 | 4.25% | $6.77 | Ref 1 |
| 1992 | 60 | 9.1% | Note 1 | 400 | Ref 2 | 4.25 | Ref 2 | 3.03% | $6.23 | Ref 1 |
| 1993 | 60 | 0.0% | Note 1 | 460 | Ref 2 | 4.25 | Ref 2 | 2.96% | $6.03 | Ref 1 |
| 1994 | 70 | 16.7% | Note 1 | 530 | Ref 2 | 4.00 | Ref 2 | 2.61% | $5.54 | Ref 1 |
| 1995 | 80 | 14.3% | Note 1 | 610 | Ref 2 | 3.75 | Ref 2 | 2.81% | $5.05 | Ref 1 |
| 1996 | 89 | 11.3% | Note 1 | 699 | Ref 2 | 4.00 | Ref 2 | 2.93% | $5.24 | Ref 1 |
| 1997 | 126 | 41.6% | Note 1 | 825 | Ref 2 | 4.15 | Ref 2 | 2.34% | $5.28 | Ref 1 |
| 1998 | 153 | 21.4% | Note 1 | 978 | Ref 2 | 4.00 | Ref 2 | 1.55% | $5.01 | Ref 1 |
| 1999 | 201 | 31.4% | Note 1 | 1179 | Ref 2 | 3.50 | Ref 2 | 2.19% | $4.31 | Ref 1 |
| 2000 | 288 | 43.3% | Note 1 | 1467 | Ref 2 | 3.50 | Ref 2 | 3.38% | $4.20 | Ref 1 |
| 2001 | 393 | 36.5% | Note 1 | 1860 | Ref 2 | 3.50 | Ref 2 | 2.83% | $4.05 | Ref 1 |
| 2002 | 525 | 33.6% | Note 1 | 2385 | Ref 2 | 3.25 | Ref 2 | 1.59% | $3.71 | Ref 1 |
| 2003 | 690 | 31.4% | Note 1 | 3075 | Ref 2 | 3.00 | Ref 2 | 2.27% | $3.34 | Ref 1 |
| 2004 | 1000 | 44.9% | Note 1 | 4075 | Ref 2 | 3.25 | Ref 2 | 2.68% | $3.55 | Ref 1 |
| 2005 | 1575 | 57.5% | Note 1 | 5600 | Ref 2 | 3.50 | Ref 2 | 3.39% | $3.71 | Ref 1 |
| 2006 | 2000 | 27% | Note 1 | 7600 | Ref 2 | 3.60 | Ref 2 | 3.24% | $3.67 | Ref 1 |
| 2007 | 3000 | 50% | Note 1 | 10600 | Ref 2 | 3.40 | Ref 2 | Inf | Adj | Ref 1 |
- Ref 1 - Inflation data from [29]. I used the inflation calculator there to adjust $/kW.
- Ref 2 - Cummulative PV and Real Price data provided by Paul Maycock. Maycock notes 1972 as the year of PV commercialization. Here is a similar source:[30]
- Ref 3 (This price figure is for a optimized space power solar cell)
- Berman, Paul A. (1967). "Design of Solar Cells for Terrestrial Use". Solar Energy. 11 (3–4): 180–185. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(67)90028-X.
- Ref 4 (This price figure is for a terrestrial power solar cell)
- Ref 5 Dr. Elliot Berman (Numbers are for Solar Power Corporation 1002 modules - Notes 1973 as the year SPC started up)
- Ref 6 (Both space based and terrestrial prices are cited)
- Ralph, E. L. (1971). "A commercial solar cell array design". Solar Energy. 14 (3): 279–280. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(73)90095-9.
- Ref 7 (Christopher Harmon - Notes 1976 as the year of PV commercialization)
- Note 1 - Production is the calculated difference between the yearly cummulatives provided by Maycock. Growth is the calculated percentage change from the previous year's production.
- Nominal dollars (also known as current dollars) - Dollars which have been adjusted to reflect the effect of inflation on prices.
- Real dollars - constant dollars
- Strategies Unlimited
- W. G. J. H. M. van Sark (Department of Science, Technology, and Society at Utrecht University) w.g.j.h.m.vansark@chem.uu.nl
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|
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The global solar hot water/heating market is dominated by China, which now accounts for 60% of total installed capacity (Table 4). The EU-15 follows China, with about 11%, then Turkey with 9% and Japan with 7%. (All figures are for glazed collectors only, excluding swimming pool heating.) The 110 million m2 of installed collector area (77 GWth of capacity) worldwide translates into about 35 million households worldwide now using solar hot water. This is about 2% of the estimated 1600 million households worldwide.
SWH
| Solar Water Heating Statistics | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | GW | TWh | China | Europe | Japan | US | Ref | Notes |
| 1990 | ||||||||
| 1991 | ||||||||
| 1992 | ||||||||
| 1993 | ||||||||
| 1994 | ||||||||
| 1995 | ||||||||
| 1996 | ||||||||
| 1997 | ||||||||
| 1998 | ||||||||
| 1999 | 10.8 | Ref 3 | ||||||
| 2000 | 15.1 | Ref 3 | ||||||
| 2001 | 20.8 | Ref 3 | ||||||
| 2002 | 27.5 | Ref 3 | ||||||
| 2003 | 92.7 | 55 | 35.5 | Ref 3 | ||||
| 2004 | 98.4 | 58 | 43.4 | 12.3 | 5.4 | 20 | Ref 2 | Note 2 |
| 2005 | 111 | 66.4 | 52.5 | 12.1 | 4.9 | Ref 4 | ||
| 2006 | 128 | 77 | 65.1 | 15.6 | 5.0 | Ref 1 | Note 1 | |
| 2007 | 154 | Ref 1 | ||||||
- Ref 1 - IEA Solar Heat Worldwide 2006
- Ref 2 - IEA Solar Heat Worldwide 2004
- Ref 3 - IEA Solar Heat Worldwide 2003
- Ref 4 - IEA Solar Heat Worldwide 2005
- Note 1 - At the end of 2006, a total of 182.5 million square meters of collector area, corresponding to an installed capacity 127.8 GWth were in operation in the 48 countries
recorded in this report. These 48 countries represent 3.87 billion people which is about 60% of the world’s population. The installed capacity in these countries represents approximately 85 - 90% of the solar thermal market worldwide.
- Note 2 - The 41 countries included in this report represent 3.74 billion people which is abobut 57% of the world's population. The installed capacity in these countries is estimated to represent 85 - 90% of the solar thermal market worldwide.
- Note 3 - The 35 countries included in this report represent 3.7 billion people which is about 57% of the world´s population. The collector area installed in these countries is estimated to represent 85-90% of the solar thermal market worldwide.
Picture timeline
- picture change-
- picture change-00:16, 16 September 2007 Mrshaba [32]
- picture change-12:28, 16 September 2007 199.125.109.10 [33]
- picture change-21:53, 10 November 2007 Mrshaba [34]
- picture change-23:06, 10 November 2007 199.125.109.27 [35]
- picture change-04:03, 12 November 2007 Mrshaba [36]
- picture change-15:45, 12 November 2007 2007 199.125.109.43 [37]
- picture change-17:55, 13 November 2007 Mrshaba [38]
- picture change-01:48, 14 November 2007 199.125.109.129[39]
- picture change-17:58, 14 November 2007 Mrshaba [40]
- picture change-05:55, 16 November 2007 Mrshaba through 69.229.196.79 [41]
- picture change-11:30, 17 November 2007 199.125.109.104 [42]
- picture resize-00:19, 21 November 2007 Mrshaba [43]
- [44] Matthias at Cal
Sun Icon
Energy Quest Sun
FSEC Sun Icon
ASES Sun Icon
SEI Sun Icon
SEIA Sun Icon
NREL Sun and PV
Sun
EPSEA Sun Icon
ISES Sun Icon
The Solar Kitchen in Auroville, India
History
- A solar bowl prototype funded by the Tata Energy Research Institute was first tried in Auroville from 1979-1982. This bowl was 3.5 meters worked well for single family cooking
- In 1997, India's Ministry for Non Conventional Energy Sources funded a full scale hybrid solar kitchen.
- completely inaugurated on 11.9.1.
- In daily operation since february 2005
Construction
- The solar kitchen was constructed in 1996 and 1997 and the solar bowl's shell was integrated in the roof at this time.
- Mirrors were placed in 1998
- Made from 11,000 (15 cm x 15 cm) mirrors. Each mirror is laminated with 2mm of clear glass to make the surface strong enough to walk on for cleaning
- Mirrors were laser aligned during construction and affixed to the curved base using silicone
- The fixed shell is composed of 96 prefabricated ferrocement elements
- Receiver made of copper
- The tracking receiver is moved about a polar axis by two computer controlled motors
- bowl is 15 meters in diameter
- aperture area of 176 square meters
- approximately 250 square meters of reflecting surface
- receiver is 4 meters long and 23 cm in diameter. It was originally composed of 3/4 inch OD (ms?) pipes wrapped around a steel frame.
- Originally used a heat transfer fluid (Therminol 66) with a 1400 liter storage tank.
Testing
- tested in 2001 and 2002
Operation
- fixed mirror/moving receiver
- 120 degree spherical concentrator focuses light in a line
- During sunny months solar provides 20% of steam to solar/diesel hybrid system.
- The fixed mirror allows this system to withstand the high winds of monsoon season
- Generates over 200 kg of steam at 3 bars during mornings. Peak steam production at noon is 83 kgs/hour
- Peak power is 63 kWth.
- Direct beam efficiency of collector is 43%.
- Useful period of steam production is between 9am and 3pm, ie. within 3 hours of solar noon.
Copied from: http://www.auroville.org/society/solark_sunnydays.htm
Solar bowl on the roof The Solar Kitchen building has been designed as a major collective kitchen for the Auroville community and was finalized in December 1997. Since then it has served lunches in its Dining Hall and in the same time sent lunches to different outlets like schools or individuals.
It derives its name from the big Solar-Bowl on its roof, which provides part of the steam for cooking on all the sunny days of the year. The other part of the steam needed, is provided by a diesel fired boiler.
Throughout the year approximately 700 lunches are prepared daily, except Sundays.
One third of these meals is served inside the Dining Hall between 12.15 and 1.15 pm
or sent to individuals by tiffin and two thirds is sent to all the schools already around 11.15am
Since September 2006 also on Sundays lunch is served in the Dining Hall between 12.15 and 1 pm. Since October 2006 every evening, except Sundays, dinner is served between 6 and 7.30 pm
Offering food with a smile. Photo by Manohar
The Solar Kitchen is providing a vegetarian and kind of cosmopolitan menu, prepared largely of the vegetables and grains grown organically in and around Auroville. There is a choice between western items like pasta, mashed potato or fresh salads and eastern items like idli/dosai, dal or chutneys. Daily curd and freshly made juices are available.
60 meals in outlying communities
Besides the 180 or so who come to eat in it, the Kitchen also feeds around 60 people in outlying communities. These remote diners supply the Kitchen with a 'tiffin', a collection of interlocking cylindrical stainless steel containers designed to carry many different dishes simultaneously, which they collect and take home filled with food. 400 meals in schools and services
The kitchen delivers a further 400 meals to Auroville's various schools and service centres, including the main grocery and domestic 'shop' Pour Tous. After 45 Solar Kitchen staff have also eaten, the average number of meals served daily by the Kitchen rises to roughly 700.
The Kitchen asks anyone intending to eat there to book in advance. It's possible to arrive unannounced without a booking, but you have to wait until 1 pm. After that un-booked diners are welcome.
The seating layout of the Kitchen over the years has developed a pattern based more on intermixing discreet sub-sets of all diners (on any given day) occupying clearly definable areas or habit-zones. Medium table-groups fluctuate in content but come from larger identifiable separate pool-sets and are focused around small relatively fixed-in-content groups or units (say 2-3, sometimes family-based around a parent with young children, or groups of 2-3 young men mostly) who move freely only within a definable area, rarely straying beyond invisible habitual boundaries.
Long-time diners find they tend towards one part of the dining area more than another, dining on rare occasions in other areas when asked by a member from that area to meet for some reason. To queue or not to queue
Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary defines 'Queue' as 'a waiting line, esp of persons or vehicles'. Based on this definition the following analysis can be made of the Solar Kitchen lunch queue:
Participants divide into X categories: Conventional queuers
Those who upon arrival stand at the end of the queue at that time, allowing all previous arrivals precedence. Unconventional queuers
Upon arrival at the queue this category of diner tends to wander normally about one third of the queue's length towards the front, and then either strike up a trivial conversation with someone they would otherwise not normally converse with, for purposes of convincing themselves they have successfully reduced their waiting time by a third (assuming the queue travels at a constant speed) but without incurring the wrath of the conventional queuers they have come in front of. Reactions
In the eyes of the unconventional queuer, their strategy is a win-win situation: they have reduced waiting time without repercussion from those in front of whom they stand. This, of course, is delusion. Many focus-group based studies of community kitchen social dynamics, including Schlumberg & Moonaswami's Evolved Social Protocols in Condensed Intentional Communities Solar Kitchen case study1 show despite the absence of perceivable reaction, the majority of diners react negatively to "cutting-in"2 . Consequences for the "cutter-in"3 are usually negligible in the short term, says Geneva's 4th Dimensional Research head, John Pertwee , but long-term repercussions, while difficult to gauge, have been shown to exist5 . Long-term reactions range from diminished inclusion of the offending individual in social activities to actual vocal confrontation and in some rare cases expulsion from the larger community6 .
January 19 th was the first of the completely sunny days of the coming sunlit season.
January 20 th too, was a perfectly cloudless day, so I went to visit Purani, the head cook in the solar kitchen to see how they were using the steam being produced by the solar bowl on the roof.
Purani was all smiles, for she had been able to use the solar steam for several jobs.
In the morning a 9 am the solar bowl is put into operation, converting water pumped into its receiver directly into steam. The solar steam is mixed with the steam of the kitchen's diesel fired boiler which is started daily at 8 am. Both the solar steam and the diesel steam work together to cook most of the lunch for the solar kitchen.
The diesel boiler is stronger and contributes ¾ of the steam required during the morning, while the solar steam accounts for ¼ .
But at 11 am or so, the diesel boiler is turned off on sunny days, and the remaining cooking and the production of all hot water for cleaning up all the kitchen vessels is all done only by the solar bowl steam.
On the days when I visited Purani, she had completed the cooking of the final batch of rice and the balance of the noodles with the solar steam on its own between 11 and 12 am. In addition, on each day she had used it to cook a big pot of banana jam for the children in the schools. Then the evening dinner team had used the solar steam between 12 and 2 pm to make a 100% solar cooked soup for those taking the tiffin dinner. They gave me a cup to taste and I'm sure it had an extra sparkle to it !
In February we will complete one year of daily operation of the solar bowl. The bowl saves the kitchen more than 12 liters of diesel for each hour that it fully replaces the diesel boiler after 11 am – this easily adds up to a saving of Rs 700 on a sunny day. The solar bowl, 15 meters in diameter, produces about 200 kgs of steam on a sunny morning (ie. it can boil dry a full 200 liter barrel of water in the three hour morning) and has a peak thermal power of 63 kilowatts at noon.
We are very happy that after several years of testing and alterations, with an especially big technical help by the American guest Daryl Carlson during 2004, the solar bowl has come into its own and that now the Solar Kitchen has a real functioning solar side to it!!
John J
- There are two additional concentrating geometries which are relatively unique to solar cookers: spherical solar concentrators and Scheffler concentrators.
- "The first well functioning Scheffler-Reflector (size: 1,1m x 1,5m) was built by Wolfgang Scheffler in 1986 at a mission-station in North-Kenya and is still in use."
- http://supreme-rays.com/Scheffler%20Technology/scheffler_tech.html
- "It´s difficult to tell how many Scheffler Reflectors exist, as there is no central registration and many workshops work independently. 2004 there were about 750 reflectors in 21 countries, that coresponds to about 200 solar kitchens, including 12 solar steam kitchens with 10 to106 reflectors per installation. The biggest solar kitchen of the world in Abu Road, Rajastan (India) is catering for up to 18 000 visiters of a Yoga center.
Now, 2006, there might be around 950 Scheffler Reflectors worldwide."
- "The combination of affordable materials, common tools and un-complicated techniques of fabrication to create a product with high-tech qualities enables interested groups to make something with their own hands which will benefit them in a sustainable way.
- "A good example is the construction of the worlds largest solar-kitchen in Abu Road, Rajastan, by the Brahma Kumaris. Because they did most of the work involved themselves, the whole installation ( 800m² of Reflector surface + steam system + back-up boiler) could be built for only 100 000 €. As they cook for a maximum of 18 000 people this equals 125,-€ per m² or 5,5 € per person."
- 50m² Scheffler-Reflector which is now being tested to deliver energy for crematoriums.
- Until now many more have been set up, even Indias biggest temple, the Tirupati Temple in Andra Pradesh is equipped with 105 reflectors.
Internet-addresses about Scheffler-Reflectors
Community-kitchen of Yoga-centre in India: www.charity-india.de/ Bakery in Namibia: www.ombili.home.pages/ Bakery in Argentina and Burkina Faso: www.hc-solar.de 400 kg iron-storage in India: www.geocities.com/bvirw/Photos/solar-storage.html generally: www.ecozen.com/, www.teriin.org/renew/tech/solth/about.htm, www.Solare-Bruecke.org You can find various articles in the archives of Solar Cookers International http://solarcooking.org/
Worldwatch PV info
| Year | 2007$ | Real$ |
|---|---|---|
| 1975 | $99.61 | $25.85 |
| 1976 | $78.39 | $21.51 |
| 1977 | $58.92 | $17.22 |
| 1978 | $41.18 | $12.95 |
| 1979 | $32.89 | $11.52 |
| 1980 | $27.79 | $11.04 |
| 1981 | $21.16 | $9.28 |
| 1982 | $17.92 | $8.34 |
| 1983 | $14.80 | $7.11 |
| 1984 | $12.88 | $6.45 |
| 1985 | $10.68 | $5.54 |
| 1986 | $8.67 | $4.58 |
| 1987 | $6.73 | $3.69 |
| 1988 | $7.30 | $4.17 |
| 1989 | $7.49 | $4.48 |
| 1990 | $7.47 | $4.71 |
| 1991 | $7.18 | $4.72 |
| 1992 | $6.29 | $4.26 |
| 1993 | $5.79 | $4.04 |
| 1994 | $5.32 | $3.80 |
| 1995 | $5.33 | $3.92 |
| 1996 | $5.11 | $3.87 |
| 1997 | $5.26 | $4.07 |
| 1998 | $4.71 | $3.70 |
| 1999 | $4.29 | $3.45 |
| 2000 | $4.21 | $3.50 |
| 2001 | $3.79 | $3.24 |
| 2002 | $3.73 | $3.24 |
| 2003 | $3.65 | $3.24 |
| 2004 | $3.55 | $3.23 |
| 2005 | $3.70 | $3.49 |
| 2006 | $3.84 | $3.73 |
| 2007 |
Module cost breakdown
2002 price of $3/Watt
- 10% cell fabrication = $.30/Watt
- 25% module assembly = $.75/Watt
- 23% Poly-Si = $.69/Watt
- 23% Crystal growth = $.69/Watt
- 19% Sawing = $.57/Watt
Comparison Table
| Application | Total
Energy Use |
Solar
Alternative |
Estimated
Savings |
Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Space Heating | 9.75 EJ | Solar heating | ? | [20] |
| Space Cooling | 5.3 EJ | Solar cooling | ? | [20] |
| Water Heating | 4.1 EJ | Solar heating | ? | [20] |
| Lighting | 7.35 EJ | Daylighting | 1.0 EJ | [20] |
| Clothes Drying | 0.9 EJ | Clothesline | ? | [20] |
- Total US energy use is approximately 105 EJ.
- Cite error: A
<ref>tag is missing the closing</ref>(see the help page).
Phase change materials have high enthalpy of fusion and can be used in solar thermal energy storage.
A Paraffin wax thermal storage system consists of a solar hot water loop connected to a paraffin wax tank. During the storage cycle, hot water flows through the storage tank melting the paraffin, which has a high enthalpy of fusion. During the heating cycle, stored heat is extracted from the tank as the wax resolidifies. These systems heat air and water to 64 °C and can reduce conventional energy use by 50 to 70%.[21][22]
Eutectic salts such as Glauber's salt can also be employed in thermal storage systems. Glauber's salt is inexpensive, readily available and can deliver heat at 64 °C.
CUC LEC
| LEC - cents/kWh | |
|---|---|
| Combined Cycle | 5.18 |
| Wind | 4.93 |
| Hydropower | 6.04 |
| CSP | 13.52-21.53 |
| Geothermal | 4.52-7.37 |
| PV | 42.72 |
| Nuclear |
Environmental Energy Flux & Human Energy Consumption Comparison Table 1
| Source | Theoretical Availability | Technically Available |
|---|---|---|
| Solar | 3,850 ZJ[23] | xxxxx ZJ |
| Wind | xxxxx ZJ | 2.25 ZJ[24] |
| Biomass | 3 ZJ[25] | xxxxx |
| Hydro | --- | xxxx ZJ |
| Electricity Consumption | --- | 0.0567 ZJ[26] |
| Primary Energy Consumption | --- | 0.487[27] |
Environmental Energy Flux & Human Energy Consumption Comparison Table 2
| Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy Consumption | |
|---|---|
| Solar | 3,850 ZJ [28] |
| Wind | 2.25 ZJ [29] |
| Biomass | 3.0 ZJ [30] |
| Electricity (2005) | 0.0567 ZJ [31] |
| Primary energy use (2005) | 0.487 ZJ [32] |
http://www.eere.energy.gov/news/news_detail.cfm/news_id=11836
When I think back on all the crap I learned in high school It's a wonder I can think at all And though my lack of education hasn't hurt me none I can read the writing on the wall
- Kodachrome
- They give us those nice bright colors
- They give us the greens of summers
- Makes you think all the world's a sunny day, oh yeah
- I got a Nikon camera
- I love to take a photograph
- So mama don't take my Kodachrome away
If you took all the girls I knew when I was single And brought them all together for one night I know they'd never match my sweet imagination Everything looks worse in black and white
Development and deployment
Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from solar resources to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce, but solar development stagnated in the early 20th century in response to the increasing availability, economy, and utility of fossil fuels.[33] Since the initial development period, the expansion and contraction cycles of solar technologies have closely followed the movement of fossil fuel markets.
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to solar technologies.[34] Deployment strategies focused on favorable tax policies and incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).[35]
Between 1970 and 1983, photovoltaic capacity grew rapidly, but dropping oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 to 1996. Since 1997, PV development has accelerated due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns (see Kyoto Protocol), and the improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies. Photovoltaic production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity reached 10.6 GW at the end of 2007.[18] At roughly 21-36 UScts/kWh in sunny climates and 47-83 UScts/kWh in cloudy climates, the price of photovoltaic electricity is much higher than conventional electricity but rapid technological development and competition in the PV sector is expected to bring prices down to grid parity in many regions between 2015 and 2020.[36][37]
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s.[38] These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels.[39] As with other solar technologies, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector was steady throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20% per year since 1999.[40] Although generally underestimated, solar water heating is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.[40]
Concentrating solar power (CSP) plants were first built commercially in the 1980s. Most development occured in the United States with the Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) project representing over 90% of the total capacity.[citation needed] Unfortunately, while SEGS was a success from an engineering perspective, it failed economically due to low natural gas and electricity prices; uncertain or expiring tax credits; and higher than expected maintenance costs.[34] As a result of the unfavorable market conditions utility scale CSP capacity ceased expanding in the early 1990s.[citation needed] Since 200X, development has resumed and several commercial projects have beem completed in the United States and Europe. These include the 11 MW PS10 (2005), the 75 MW Nevada Solar One and the 59.9 MW AndaSol-I (2008).[41][42][43]
http://www.trec-uk.org.uk/images/fresnel_mirrors3.JPG http://www.trec-uk.org.uk/history/history.html
Intro
[45] Solar energy is heat and light from the sun. This energy resource powers the climate and weather and sustains life on Earth. Solar radiation along with secondary solar resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass account for over 99.97% of the available flow of renewable energy on Earth.
Solar energy technologies can provide daylighting and thermal comfort in passive buildings; potable water via distillation and disinfection; water and space heating; space cooling by absorption or vapor-compression refrigeration; high temperature process heat for industrial purposes; and electrical generation by thermal or photovoltaic means.
Omiya to Utsunomiya
- 40P/100T
- Traditional tile roofs common, flat patio roofs also common... Traditional roofs present a possible barrier to flat panels. Flexible films? Flexible tradition?
Utsunomiya return
Homes are 90% south facing. Also note landscapes are relatively dark.
Solar Energy vs Solar Power
Table
| Source and Use | Total Physical Suppy | Technical Potential |
|---|---|---|
| Solar | 3,850 ZJ [44] | 3.38 ZJ [45] |
| Wind | 110 ZJ [46] | 2.25 ZJ [47] |
| Biomass | 3.0 ZJ [48] | 0.104 ZJ [49] |
| Hydro | 0.367 ZJ [50] | 0.052 ZJ [51] |
| Electricity (2005) | --- | 0.0567 ZJ [52] |
| Primary energy use (2005) | --- | 0.487 ZJ [53] |
Just a couple of tips on formatting...
- CSS
style="float:right"is to make block-level element (e.g. a <div>) around which other text will flow. This is added to images, infoboxes, tables etc (but not to cells!) when those blocks are to appear on the right of everything else.
To merely right-justify text inside something else usestyle="text-align:right"(CSS) oralign="right"(html 3). - To add a descriptive note to the column header(s) add
<ref group="n">additional description here</ref>wherever necessary.
Then, immediately after the table add{{reflist|group="n"}}which will then emit the descriptive notes previously defined for group "n" (or whatever you call it) directly below the table.
If the whole shebang is to be to the right of other text, then put both the table and the{{reflist|group="n"}}inside a<div style="float:right;border:solid gray 1px;">...</div>
| Annual energy resources and consumption | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Resource and use | Total supply | Technical potential | Current use |
| Solar | 3,850,000 EJ [54] | 3,380 EJ [55] † | xx |
| Wind | 110,000 EJ [56] | 795 EJ [57] † | xx |
| Biomass | 3,000 EJ [58] | 104 EJ [59] | xx |
| Hydro | 367 EJ [60] | 52 EJ [61] | xx |
| Electricity | 57 EJ (2005)[62] | ||
| Primary energy use | 487 EJ (2005)[63] | ||
| |||
Same as proposal 5 while ...
- sticking with the color scheme defined by "wikitable"; if used it ought to be used consistently
- not using attributes deprecated since 1999/HTML 4.01
(and also not supported in the XHTML 1.0 DTD, which WP pages ought to adhere to); - not muddle css (presentation) and html (content)
ALSO: a) Citations are complete in this version. b) The caption ref placeholder is ' 'ref placeholder is ' '
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 12
- ^ de Vriesa,Bert J.M. Detlef P. "Renewable energy sources: Their global potential for the first-half of the 21st century at a global level: An integrated approach" (PDF). Energy Policy. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Lorenze (1976), p. X
- ^ Archer, Cristina. "Evaluation of Global Wind Power". Stanford. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
- ^ Kyritsis, Spyros (2001). 1st World Conference on Biomass for Energy and Industry. Earthscan. ISBN 1902916158, 9781902916156.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - ^ Smil (2006), p. 245
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 246
- ^ "World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
- ^ "World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980-2004". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 60–100
- ^ Martin and Goswami (2005), p. 45
- ^ a b c d e "Concentrating Solar Power in 2001 - An IEA/SolarPACES Summary of Present Status and Future Prospects" (PDF). International Energy Agency - SolarPACES. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
- ^ "UNLV Solar Site". University of Las Vegas. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
- ^ "An Assessment of Solar Energy Conversion Technologies and Research Opportunities" (PDF). Stanford University - Global Climate Change & Energy Project. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
- ^ David Shukman. "Power station harnesses Sun's rays". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
- ^ "Supporting Solar Photovoltaic Electricity - An Argument for Feed-in Tariffs" (PDF). European Phtovoltaic Industry Association. Retrieved 2008-06-09.
- ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
Renewables 2007was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Solar Energy". Regional-Renewables. Retrieved 2007-09-30.
- ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference
End Use 2005was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Romanowicz, Goska (2006-05-19). "Heat 'batteries' dramatically cut energy use". edie newsroom. Retrieved 2007-09-29.
- ^ Gok, Özgül. "Stabilization of Glauber's Salt for Latent Heat Storage" (PDF). Çukurova University. Retrieved 2007-09-30.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Smil (2006), p. 12
- ^ Archer, Cristina. "Evaluation of Global Wind Power". Stanford. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
- ^ "World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
- ^ "World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980-2004". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 12
- ^ Archer, Cristina. "Evaluation of Global Wind Power". Stanford. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
- ^ "World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
- ^ "World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980-2004". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 63, 77, 101
- ^ a b "Solar Industry Profile". Department of Energy. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
- ^ "Chronicle of Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft". Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
- ^ "Supporting Solar Photovoltaic Electricity - An Argument for Feed-in Tariffs" (PDF). European Phtovoltaic Industry Association. Retrieved 2008-06-09.
- ^ "Solar Electricity Global Benchmark Price Indices - June 2008 Survey Results". solarbuzz. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 117
- ^ Butti and Perlin (1981), p. 139
- ^ a b Weiss, Werner. "Solar Heat Worldwide - Markets and Contribution to the Energy Supply 2006" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Retrieved 2008-06-09.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "PS10". SolarPACES (Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems). Retrieved 2008-06-24.
- ^ "U.S. Parabolic Trough Power Plant Data". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved 2008-06-25.
- ^ "AndaSol-I and AndaSol-II". SolarPACES (Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems). Retrieved 2008-06-25.
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 12
- ^ de Vriesa,Bert J.M. Detlef P. "Renewable energy sources: Their global potential for the first-half of the 21st century at a global level: An integrated approach" (PDF). Energy Policy. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Lorenze (1976), p. X
- ^ Archer, Cristina. "Evaluation of Global Wind Power". Stanford. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ "Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
- ^ Kyritsis, Spyros (2001). 1st World Conference on Biomass for Energy and Industry. Earthscan. ISBN 1902916158, 9781902916156.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - ^ Smil (2006), p. 245
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 246
- ^ "World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
- ^ "World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980-2004". Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 12
- ^ de Vriesa, Bert J.M.; van Vuuren, Detlef P.; Hoogwijk, Monique M. (2007), "Renewable energy sources: Their global potential for the first-half of the 21st century at a global level: An integrated approach", Energy Policy, 35 (4): 2590–2610, doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2006.09.002
- ^ Lorenze (1976), p. X
- ^ Archer, Cristina; Jacobson, Mark Z. (2005), "Evaluation of Global Wind Power", Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres, 110 (D12110), doi:10.1029/2004JD005462
- ^ Miyamoto, Kazuhisa, ed. (1997), "Energy conversion by photosynthetic organisms", Renewable biological systems for alternative sustainable energy production, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin, vol. 128, Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, ISBN 92-5-104059-1
- ^ SPECIFIED, NOT (2001), "NOT SPECIFIED", in Kyritsis, Spyros; Beenackers, A.A.C.M.; Helm, P.; Grassi, A.; Ciaramonti, D. (eds.), Proceedings of the First World Conference on Biomass for Energy and Industry, vol. NOT SPECIFIED, London: Earthscan, pp. NOT SPECIFIED, ISBN 1-902916-15-8
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 245
- ^ Smil (2006), p. 246
- ^ US DOE/Energy Information Administration (2007), "World Total Net Electricity Consumption, 1980-2005", International Energy Annual 2005, Washington: eia.doe.gov, retrieved 2008-05-25
- ^ US DOE/Energy Information Administration (2007), "Primary Energy Consumption by Source [Energy or Fuel Type], 1980-2005", International Total Primary Energy Consumption and Energy Intensity: Selected Country Groups ... and World Total, 1980-2005, Washington: eia.doe.gov, retrieved 2008-05-17
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