Red meat
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Red meat in culinary terminology refers to meat which is red-colored when raw. Red meat includes the meat of many—but not all—mammals.
Gastronomy
In gastronomy, red meat is darker-colored meat, as contrasted with white meat. The exact definition varies by time, place, and culture, but the meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is invariably considered red, while chicken and rabbit are invariably considered white. The meat of young mammals such as milk-fed veal calves and sheep, and pigs is traditionally considered white; while the meat of duck and goose is considered red,[1] though the demarcation line has been shifting. Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French viandes noires 'black meats').[2]
Cooking
Red meat does not refer to how well a piece of meat is cooked or its coloration after cooking. A steak or hamburger is red meat whether it is served rare, or cooked until it is well-done; pork is also red, though it turns to a whitish color when cooked. According to the USDA all meats obtained from livestock are red meats because they contain more myoglobin than chicken or fish.[3]
Myoglobin concentration
The main determinant of the color of meat is the concentration of myoglobin. The white meat of chicken has under 0.05%; chicken thigh has 0.18-0.20%; pork and veal have 0.1-0.3%; young beef has 0.4-1.0%; and old beef has 1.5-2.0%.[4]
In the health discussion below, we assume the nutritional, not the traditional gastronomic, definitions.
Nutrition
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Red meat is a source of iron. Red meat also contains protein, levels of creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and vitamins such as niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin.[5] Red meat is the richest source of Alpha Lipoic Acid, a powerful antioxidant.[6]
Saturated fat
Red meat is the largest contributor of saturated fat in the Western diet.[citation needed]
Food pyramid
The traditional food guide pyramid has been criticized for not distinguishing between red meat and other types of meat.[7] The newer My Pyramid recommends lean forms of red meat.[8]
Health risks
While red meat is a good source of complete protein and iron, studies have found correlations to several health risks.
Cancer
Recent studies show that red meat could pose an increase in cancer risk. Some studies have linked consumption of large amounts of red meat with breast cancer,[9] colorectal cancer,[10][11] stomach cancer,[12] lymphoma,[13] bladder cancer[14] and prostate cancer.[14][15] Furthermore, there is convincing evidence that consumption of beef, pork, lamb, and goat from domesticated animals is a cause of colorectal cancer.[16] Professor Sheila Bingham of the Dunn Human Nutrition Unit attributes this to the haemoglobin and myoglobin molecules which are found in red meat. She suggests these molecules, when ingested trigger a process called nitrosation in the gut which leads to the formation of carcinogens.[17]
Eating cooked red meat may increase the likelihood of cancer because carcinogenic compounds called heterocyclic amines are created during the cooking process. Heterocyclic amines may not explain why red meat is more harmful than other meat, however, as these compounds are also found in poultry and fish, which have not been linked to an increased cancer risk.[18]
A 2009 study by the National Cancer Institute revealed a correlation between the consumption of red meat and increased mortality from cancer and cardiovascular diseases. [19] This study has been criticized for using an improperly validated food frequency questionnaire [20], which has been shown to have low levels of accuracy [21][22]
Cardiovascular diseases
Red meat consumption is associated with cardiovascular diseases, possibly because of its high content of saturated fat.[14]
A 1999 study funded by the National Cattlemen's Beef Association, an advocacy group for beef producers, involved 191 persons with high cholesterol on diets where at least 80% of the meat intake came from either lean red meat in one group, or lean white meat in another. The results of this study showed nearly identical cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in both groups. This study suggests that lean red meat may play a role in a low-fat diet for persons with high cholesterol. [23][24]
Other health issues
Regular consumption of red meat has also been linked to hypertension[14] and arthritis.[14]
Culture
In India, people who follow Hinduism do not eat red meat sourced from bovines. However, red meat from lambs and sheep is acceptable to Hindus.
In some cultures eating red meat is considered a masculine activity, possibly due to traditions of hunting big game as a male rite of passage.[25]
References
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, 1989
- ^ Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
- ^ "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "Iowa State Animal Science". Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet, September 1990, http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf
- ^ The Nutrition Reporter newsletter, Alpha-Lipoic Acid: Quite Possibly the "Universal" Antioxidant, July 1996, http://www.thenutritionreporter.com/Alpha-Lipoic.html
- ^ Harvard School of Public Health, Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat, 2008, http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html
- ^ United States Department of Agriculture, Inside the Pyramid, 2005, http://www.mypyramid.gov/pyramid/meat.html
- ^ Breast Cancer Risk Linked To Red Meat, Study Finds, Washington Post,2005
- ^ Eating Lots of Red Meat Linked to Colon Cancer, American Cancer Society
- ^ Red meat 'linked to cancer risk', BBC News, 2005
- ^ Study Links Meat Consumption to Gastric Cancer, National Cancer Institute
- ^ Study links red meat to some cancers, CNN, 1996
- ^ a b c d e Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 10479227, please use {{cite journal}} with
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|pmid=8105097instead. - ^ "Second Expert Report - Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Cancer: a Global Perspective"
- ^ BBC NEWS, Red Meat Cancer Risk found, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4662934.stm
- ^ BBC NEWS, Red meat 'linked to cancer risk' , 2005, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4088824.stm
- ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 19307518, please use {{cite journal}} with
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|pmid=11682365instead. - ^ Science Daily, Study Shows Lean Red Meat Can Play A Role In Low-Fat Diet, 1999, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/07/990702075933.htm
- ^ Davidson MH, Hunninghake D, Maki KC, Kwiterovich PO, Kafonek S (1999). "Comparison of the effects of lean red meat vs lean white meat on serum lipid levels among free-living persons with hypercholesterolemia: a long-term, randomized clinical trial". Arch. Intern. Med. 159 (12): 1331–8. doi:10.1001/archinte.159.12.1331. PMID 10386509.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Real Men Eat Meat". Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2009-09-16.