Magnetometer

A magnetometer, pronounced mag-ne-TOM-e-ter, is a scientific instrument used to measure the strength or direction of the magnetic field, produced either in the laboratory or existing in nature. The Earth's magnetic field (the magnetosphere) varies from place to place, for various reasons such as inhomogeneity of rocks and the interaction between charged particles from the Sun and the magnetosphere.

Further information: [[:Earth's magnetic field]]

Uses

Magnetometers can measure the magnetic fields of planets.

Magnetometers have a very diverse range of applications from locating submarines and Spanish Galleons,positioning weapons systems, detecing unexploded ordnance, locating toxic waste drums, heart beat monitors, sensors in anti-locking breaks, weather prediction via solar cycles, depths of steel pilons, drill guidance systems, locating hazards for tunnel boring machines, archaeology, Plate Tectonics, finding a wide range of mineral deposits and geological structures, hazards in coal mines, to radiowave propogation and planetry exploration. And there are many more applications.

Depending on the application, magnetometers can be deployed in spacecraft, aeroplanes (fixed wing), helicopters (stinger and bird), on the ground (backpack), towed at a distance behind quad bikes (sled or trailer), lowered into boreholes (tool, probe or sonde) and towed behind boats (tow fish).

Magnetometers applied to the study the earth are called geophysical surveys - a term that also embraces a wide range of other techniques.

Archaeology

Magnetometers are also used to detect archaeological sites, shipwrecks and other buried or submerged objects, and in metal detectors to detect metal objects, such as guns in security screening. Magnetic anomaly detectors detect submarines for military purposes.

Auroras

Magnetometers can give an indication of possible auroral activity before one can see the light from the aurora. A grid of magnetometers around the world constantly measures the effect of the solar wind on the Earth's magnetic field, which is published on the K-index.

Coal Exploration

At a regional scale, magnetometers can be used to help map basin shape.

Magnetometers are used to map hazards to coal mining including basaltic intrusions ([dykes_(Geology)], sills and plugs) that replace coal resources, faults and burn zones (ignited by lightning). Magnetometers can also map siderite - an impurity in some coal.

The best surveys results are achieved on the ground and in boreholes due to the subtle nature of the smaller anomalies. Surveys are dirnally corrected using a base station to correct for the unwanted natural daily fluctuations in the earth's magnetic field.

Examples of high-resolution ground magetic surveys from the Australian coal industry conducted by Ultramag Geophysics Pty Ltd can be found at === Directional Drlling === They are used in directional drilling for oil or gas to detect the azimuth of the drilling tools near the drill bit. They are most often paired up with accelerometers in drilling tools so that both the inclination and azimuth of the drill bit can be found.

Mineral Exploration

This is one of the major commercial applications of magnetometers because that are used to locate world class deposits of gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, platinum, diamonds and even some rubies and opal.

First world countries such as Australia, Canada and USA invest heavily in systematic airborne magnetic surveys of their respective continents (and surrounding oceans) to help map geology and leverage the discovery of mineral deposits. They use airplanes like the Shrike Commander.

Such surveys may be followed up with ground magentic surveys (and other geophysical surveys including gravity EM and IP) to give more detail of the shallower structures prior to drilling.

Magneotmeters assist mineral explorers both directly (ie. gold mineralisation associated with magnetite) and by indirect means such as mapping geological structures (ie. shear zones more conducive to mineralisation).

Mobile phones

Magnetometers are appearing in mobile phones. The HTC HD2, Nokia C7-00, HTC Dream, HTC Desire HD, HTC Evo, HTC Wildfire, Apple iPhone 3GS, iPhone 4 and iPad, Motorola Droid, Motorola Quench,Motorola Atrix 4g Nokia N97, Nokia E72, Nokia N8, Nokia E5, Xperia X10, Samsung i8910, Samsung Wave S8500, Blackberry Torch,Samsung Galaxy S, Nexus One, Nexus S, and the HTC Hero all have a magnetometer and come with compass apps for showing direction.

Researchers at Deutsche Telekom have used magnetometers embedded in mobile devices to permit touchless 3-D interaction. Their interaction framework, called MagiTact, tracks changes to the magnetic field around a cellphone to identify different gestures made by a hand holding or wearing a magnet.

Oil Exploration

Magnetometers are a secondary techniques used with seismics for oil epxloration. They are used for basin shape, and faults.

Oil deposits can leak hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbins find their way up fractures in the ground are eaten by bugs at or near the surface. The bugs can precipitate magnetite from haematite producing subtle magnetic anomalies.

Spacecraft

A three-axis fluxgate magnetometer was part of the Mariner 2 and Mariner 10 missions. A dual technique magnetometer is part of the Cassini-Huygens mission to explore Saturn. This system is composed of a vector helium and fluxgate magnetometers. Magnetometers are also a component instrument on the Mercury MESSENGER mission. A magnetometer can also be used by satellites like GOES to measure both the magnitude and direction of a planet's or moon's magnetic field.

Further information: [[:Spacecraft magnetometer]]

Types

Magnetometers can be divided into two basic types:

• Scalar magnetometers measure the total strength of the magnetic field to which they are subjected, and
• Vector magnetometers have the capability to measure the component of the magnetic field in a particular direction, relative to the spatial orientation of the device.

The use of three orthogonal vector magnetometers allows the magnetic field strength, inclination and declination to be uniquely defined. Examples of vector magnetometers are fluxgates, superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs), and the atomic SERF magnetometer. Some scalar magnetometers are discussed below.

A magnetograph is a special magnetometer that continuously records data.

Rotating coil magnetometer

The magnetic field induces a sine wave in a rotating coil. The amplitude of the signal is proportional to the strength of the field, provided it is uniform, and to the sine of the angle between the rotation axis of the coil and the field lines. This type of magnetometer is obsolete.

Hall effect magnetometer

NMR pocket monitoring device containing three Hall-effect sensors.

The most common magnetic sensing devices are solid-state Hall effect sensors. These sensors produce a voltage proportional to the applied magnetic field and also sense polarity.

They are used in applications where the magnetic field strength is relative large - for example in Anti-lock_braking_system in cars to sense wheel rotation speed via slots in the wheel disks.

Proton precession magnetometer

Proton precession magnetometers, also known as proton magnetometers, measure the resonance frequency of protons (hydrogen nuclei) in the magnetic field to be measured, due to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Because the precession frequency depends only on atomic constants and the strength of the ambient magnetic field, the accuracy of this type of magnetometer is very good. They are widely used.

A direct current flowing in a solenoid creates a strong magnetic field around a hydrogen-rich fluid, causing some of the protons to align themselves with that field. The current is then interrupted, and as protons realign themselves with ambient magnetic field, they precess at a frequency that is directly proportional to the magnetic field. This produces a weak alternating magnetic field that is picked up by a (sometimes separate) inductor, amplified electronically, and fed to a digital frequency counter whose output is typically scaled and displayed directly as field strength or output as digital data.

The relationship between the frequency of the induced current and the strength of the magnetic field is called the proton gyromagnetic ratio, and is equal to 0.042576 Hz/nT.

These magnetometers can be moderately sensitive if several tens of watts are available to power the aligning process. Measuring once per second, standard deviations in the readings in the 0.01 nT to 0.1 nT range can be obtained. Variations of about 0.1 nT can be detected.

The two main sources of measurement errors are magnetic impurities in the sensor and errors in the measurement of the frequency.

The Earth's magnetic field varies with time, geographical location, and local magnetic anomalies. The frequency of Earth's field NMR (EFNMR) for protons varies between approximately 900 Hz near the equator to 4.2 kHz near the geomagnetic poles. Typical short-term magnetic field variations at a particular location during Earth's daily rotation is about 25 nT (i.e., about 1 part in 2,000), with variations over a few seconds of typically around 1nT (i.e., about 1 part in 50,000).

Apart from the direct measurement of the magnetic field on Earth or in space, these magnetometers prove to be useful to detect variations of magnetic field in space or in time (often referred to as magnetic anomalies), caused by submarines, skiers buried under snow, archaeological remains, and mineral deposits.

Overhauser effect magnetometer

The Overhauser effect magnetometer also known as an Overhauser magnetometer measures the same fundamental effect as the Proton precession magnetometer. By adding free radicals to the measurement fluid the Nuclear Overhauser effect can be exploited to improve upon the functioning of the Proton precession magnetometer. Rather than aligning the protons using a solenoid, a low power RF field is used to align the electron spin of the free radicals which then couples to the protons via the Overhauser effect. This has two main advantages, driving the RF field takes a fraction of the energy, and much faster sampling as the electron-proton coupling can happen even as measurements are being taken.

Gradiometer

Magnetic gradiometers are pairs of magnetometers with their sensors separated by a fixed distance, usually horizontally. The readings are subtracted in order to measure the difference between the sensed magnetic fields, which measures the field gradients caused by magnetic anomalies. This is one way of compensating both for the variability in time of the Earth's magnetic field and for other sources of electromagnetic interference, allowing more sensitive detection of anomalies. Because nearly equal values are being subtracted, the noise performance requirements for the magnetometers is more extreme. For this reason, high performance magnetometers are the rule in this type of system.

Fluxgate magnetometer

A uniaxial fluxgate magnetometer.

A fluxgate compass/inclinometer.

Basic principles of a fluxgate magnetometer.

A fluxgate magnetometer consists of a small, magnetically susceptible, core wrapped by two coils of wire. An alternating electrical current is passed through one coil, driving the core through an alternating cycle of magnetic saturation; i.e., magnetised, unmagnetised, inversely magnetised, unmagnetised, magnetised, etc. This constantly changing field induces an electrical current in the second coil, and this output current is measured by a detector. In a magnetically neutral background, the input and output currents will match. However, when the core is exposed to a background field, it will be more easily saturated in alignment with that field and less easily saturated in opposition to it. Hence the alternating magnetic field, and the induced output current, will be out of step with the input current. The extent to which this is the case will depend on the strength of the background magnetic field. Often, the current in the output coil is integrated, yielding an output analog voltage, proportional to the magnetic field.

Fluxgate magnetometers, paired in a gradiometer configuration, are commonly used for archaeological prospecting and UXO detection such as the German militarys popular Forster.

A wide variety of sensors are currently available and used to measure magnetic fields. Fluxgate magnetometers and gradiometers measure the direction and magnitude of magnetic fields. Fluxgates are affordable, rugged and compact. This, plus their typically low power consumption makes them ideal for a variety of sensing applications.

The typical fluxgate magnetometer consists of a "sense" (secondary) coil surrounding an inner "drive" (primary) coil that is wound around permeable core material. Each sensor has magnetic core elements that can be viewed as two carefully matched halves. An alternating current is applied to the drive winding, which drives the core into plus and minus saturation. The instantaneous drive current in each core half is driven in opposite polarity with respect to any external magnetic field. In the absence of any external magnetic field, the flux in one core half cancels that in the other and the total flux seen by the sense coil is zero. If an external magnetic field is now applied, it will, at a given instance in time, aid the flux in one core half and oppose flux in the other. This causes a net flux imbalance between the halves, so that they no longer cancel one another. Current pulses are now induced in the sense winding on every drive current phase reversal (or at the 2nd, and all even harmonics). This results in a signal that is dependent on both the external field magnitude and polarity.

There are additional factors that affect the size of the resultant signal. These factors include the number of turns in the sense winding, magnetic permeability of the core, sensor geometry and the gated flux rate of change with respect to time. Phase synchronous detection is used to convert these harmonic signals to a DC voltage proportional to the external magnetic field.

Fluxgate magnetometers were invented in the 1930s by Victor Vacquier at Gulf Research Laboratories; Vacquier applied them during World War II as an instrument for detecting submarines, and after the war confirmed the theory of plate tectonics by using them to measure shifts in the magnetic patterns on the sea floor.

Caesium vapor magnetometer

A basic example of the workings of a magnetometer may be given by discussing the common optically pumped caesium vapor magnetometer which is a highly sensitive (300 fT/Hz^0.5) and accurate device used in a wide range of applications. Although it relies on some interesting quantum mechanics to operate, its basic principles are easily explained.

The device broadly consists of a photon emitter containing a caesium light emitter or lamp, an absorption chamber containing caesium vapor and a "buffer gas" through which the emitted photons pass, and a photon detector, arranged in that order.

Polarization

The basic principle that allows the device to operate is the fact that a caesium atom can exist in any of nine energy levels, which is the placement of electron atomic orbitals around the atomic nucleus. When a caesium atom within the chamber encounters a photon from the lamp, it jumps to a higher energy state and then re-emits a photon and falls to an indeterminate lower energy state. The caesium atom is 'sensitive' to the photons from the lamp in three of its nine energy states, and therefore eventually, assuming a closed system, all the atoms will fall into a state in which all the photons from the lamp will pass through unhindered and be measured by the photon detector. At this point the sample (or population) is said to be polarized and ready for measurement to take place. This process is done continuously during operation.

Detection

Given that this theoretically perfect magnetometer is now functional, it can now begin to make measurements.

In the most common type of caesium magnetometer, a very small AC magnetic field is applied to the cell. Since the difference in the energy levels of the electrons is determined by the external magnetic field, there is a frequency at which this small AC field will cause the electrons to change states. In this new state, the electron will once again be able to absorb a photon of light. This causes a signal on a photo detector that measures the light passing through the cell. The associated electronics uses this fact to create a signal exactly at the frequency which corresponds to the external field.

Another type of caesium magnetometer modulates the light applied to the cell. This is referred to as a Bell-Bloom magnetometer after the two scientists who first investigated the effect. If the light is turned on and off at the frequency corresponding to the Earth's field, there is a change in the signal seen at the photo detector. Again, the associated electronics uses this to create a signal exactly at the frequency which corresponds to the external field.

Both methods lead to high performance magnetometers.

Applications

The caesium magnetometer is typically used where a higher performance magnetometer than the proton magnetometer is needed. In archaeology and geophysics, where the sensor is moved through an area and many accurate magnetic field measurements are needed, the caesium magnetometer has advantages over the proton magnetometer.

The caesium magnetometer's faster measurement rate allows the sensor to be moved through the area more quickly for a given number of data points.

The lower noise of the caesium magnetometer allows those measurements to more accurately show the variations in the field with position.

Spin-exchange relaxation-free (SERF) atomic magnetometers

At sufficiently high atomic density, extremely high sensitivity can be achieved. Spin-exchange-relaxation-free (SERF) atomic magnetometers containing potassium, caesium or rubidium vapor operate similarly to the caesium magnetometers described above yet can reach sensitivities lower than 1 fT/Hz^0.5.

The SERF magnetometers only operate in small magnetic fields. The Earth's field is about 50 µT. SERF magnetometers operate in fields less than 0.5 µT.

As shown in large volume detectors have achieved 200 aT/Hz^0.5 sensitivity. This technology has greater sensitivity per unit volume than SQUID detectors.

The technology can also produce very small magnetometers that may in the future replace coils for detecting changing magnetic fields.

Rapid developments are ongoing in this area. This technology may produce a magnetic sensor that has all of its input and output signals in the form of light on fiberoptic cables. This would allow the magnetic measurement to be made in places where high electrical voltages exist.

SQUID magnetometer

SQUIDs, or superconducting quantum interference devices, measure extremely small magnetic fields; they are very sensitive vector magnetometers, with noise levels as low as 3 fT/Hz^0.5 in commercial instruments and 0.4 fT/Hz^0.5 in experimental devices. Many liquid-helium-cooled commercial SQUIDs achieve a flat noise spectrum from near DC (less than 1 Hz) to tens of kiloHertz, making such devices ideal for time-domain biomagnetic signal measurements. SERF atomic magnetometer demonstrated in a laboratory so far reaches competitive noise floor but in relatively small frequency ranges.

SQUID magnetometers require cooling with liquid helium (4.2 K) or liquid nitrogen (77 K) to operate, hence the packaging requirements to use them are rather stringent both from a thermal-mechanical as well as magnetic standpoint. SQUID magnetometers are most commonly used to measure the magnetic fields produced by brain or heart activity (magnetoencephalography and magnetocardiography, respectively). Geophysical surveys use SQUIDS from time to time, but the logistics is much more complicated than coil-based magnetometers.

Early magnetometers

In 1833, Carl Friedrich Gauss, head of the Geomagnetic Observatory in Göttingen, published a paper on measurement of the Earth's magnetic field. It described a new instrument that Gauss called a "magnometer" (a term which is still occasionally used instead of magnetometer). It consisted of a permanent bar magnet suspended horizontally from a gold fibre. A magnetometer may also be called a gaussmeter.

See also

• Vibrating sample magnetometer
• Magnetic anomaly detector
• Magnetotellurics
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance NMR
• Earth's field NMR (EFNMR)
• Magnetic immunoassay
• Intermagnet is a global network of observatories, monitoring the Earth's magnetic field.
• Search Coil Magnetometer – sensitive broadband magnetometers, ULF applications, Space Applications
• Magnetometer Arrays – Existing Arrays, How Arrays are used for imaging
• Magnetometer Networks – Linking the arrays and instruments together, data fusion, applications, goals
• Magnetometer Data – Where is the data? What models exist? What software and algorithms are commonly applied?
• Transionospheric – Geomagnetic phenomena are visible from orbiting and geostationary satellites
• Lithospheric-Ionospheric – Seismo-electromagnetic data can be seen by earth-based and satellite magnetometers and other sensors. Earthquake prediction, preseismic, and Earth Models are common applications.
• Magnetograms – are often displayed as images on the web, but usually the digital data are also available.

External links

• Earthquake forecasting techniques and more research on the study of electromagnetic fields
• Dan's Homegrown Proton Precession Magnetometer Page
• USGS Geomagnetism Program
• A home built PPM that actually works
• Earth's Field NMR (EFNMR)
• Magnetic archaeological prospection (Swedish National Heritage Board)
• Magnetometer – Measuring the magnetic field of Earth
• Space-based magnetometers
• Practical guidelines for building a magnetometer by hobbyists – Part 1 Introduction
• Practical guidelines for building a magnetometer by hobbyists – Part 2 Building
• The new INTERMAGNET 1-second standard fluxgate magnetometer. V.Korepanov, A. Marusenkov (Lviv Centre of Institute for Space Research, Lviv, Ukraine), J.Rasson (Royal Meteorological Institute, Dourbes, Belgium)