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Portia fimbriata

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Portia fimbriata
Female P. fimbriata
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Arachnida
Order:
Araneae
Family:
Salticidae[1]
Genus:
Portia[1]
Species:
P. fimbriata[1][2]
Binomial name
Portia fimbriata
(Doleschall, 1859)
Synonyms [3]

Salticus fimbriatus Doleschall, 1859

Portia fimbriata, sometimes called the fringed jumping spider,[4] is a jumping spider (family Salticidae) found in Australia and Southeast Asia. Adult females have bodies 6 to 9 millimetres long, while those of adult males are 5 to 7 millimetres long.[5] Both sexes have a generally dark brown carapace, reddish brown fangs, a brown underside, and palps dark brown with white hairs, both sexes have fine, faint markings and soft fringes of hair, and the legs are spindly and fringed. All species of the genus Portia have elastic abdomens, so that those of both sexes become almost spherical when well fed, and females' can stretch as much when producing but not yet laying eggs.

The vision of a jumping spiders' main eyes is more acute than a cat's during the day and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly's.[6] P. fimbriata is one of the best, distinguishing arthropods up to 280 millimetres away (47 times its own body length),[7] and identifying features of the scenery up to 85 times its own body length away, which helps the spider to find detours.[8]: 21  However, the main eyes of P. fimbriata and other jumping spiders can take in only a small visual field at one time, and take a relatively long time to see objects, probably because a lot of scanning is needed. This makes P. fimbriata and other jumping spiders vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds, frogs and mantises, which a jumping spider often cannot identify.

The genus Portia have been called "Eight-legged Cats", as their hunting tactics are as versatile and adaptable as a lion's. All members of Portia have instinctive hunting tactics for their most common prey, but can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations, and then remember the new approach.[6] There are differences in the hunting tactics of the regional populations of P. fimbriata. Those in Australia's New Territory are poor at hunting jumping spiders and better against non-salticid web-building spiders and against insects. The Sri Lanka variant is fair against other jumping spiders, and good against web spiders and insects. P. fimbriata in Queensland is an outstanding predator of other jumping spiders and of web spiders, but poor against insects.[9]: 424, 432, 434  The Queensland variant use a unique "cryptic stalking" technique which confuses most other jumping spiders so thoroughly that most cannot identify this P. fimbriata as a predator, or even as an animal at all. P. fimbriata in Queensland has additional tactics when hunting the very abundant jumping spider Jacksonoides queenslandicus. The Queensland population of the jumping spider Euryattus can defend itself as it can see through P. fimbriata′s cryptic stalking. Females of the subfamily Lyssomaninae are translucent, which makes their main eyes appear to flicker and sometimes confuse P. fimbriata into using normal rather than cryptic stalking, giving the prey a chance to defend itself. All types of prey spiders occasionally counter-attack, but all Portias have very good defences, starting with especially tough skin. P. fimbriata never attacks ants and seldom attacks jumping spiders that mimic ants or beetles.

When meeting another of the same species, P. fimbriata does not use cryptic stalking but displays by moves quickly and smoothly, and displays at 4 to 27 centimetres away. It raises its legs, its body sways from side to side, and the palps are lowered below the chelicerae ("fangs"). In P. fimbriata from Queensland, contests between males usually last only 5 to 10 seconds, and only their legs make contact. Contests between Portia females are usually long and violent, and the victor may evict a loser and then eat the loser's eggs and take over the loser's web - but victorious females of P. fimbriata from Queensland does not kill and eat the losers. If a P. fimbriata male from Queensland displays to a female, she may run away or she may give a "propulsive display", charging into him. If the pair reach agreement after this, they will copulate if she is mature, and if she is sub-adult he will cohabit in her nest until she finishes moulting, and then they copulate. P. fimbriata typically copulates much quicker than other jumping spiders. Unlike in other Portias, females of P. fimbriata do not eat their mates during courting, nor during or after copulation.

Body structure and appearance

    Carapace over cephalothorax
    Abdomen
    Eyes
    Legs
    Palps
    Chelicerae, housing fangs
Main features of a jumping spider

Spiders are chelicerates, which differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into only two tagmata, the cephalothorax and abdomen.[10] The top of the cephalothorax is covered by a carapace,[11]: 572  that of jumping spiders has a distinctive rectangular shape,[12]: 51  and those of the genus Portia slope gently upward almost to the back, then steeply down.[13]: 236  Spiders' abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets that extrude silk from up to six types of silk glands within their abdomen. The cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a small, cylindrical, flexible pedicel, which allows the abdomen to move while spinning silk.[11]: 571-574  While most jumping spiders do not build webs to catch prey, they use silk for other purposes,[14] including resting, moulting and laying eggs.[15]: 495 [16]

Jumping spiders have large forelegs and short, powerful back legs.[17] Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead extend them by increasing their blood pressure. Jumping spiders can leap up to 50 times their own length by powerfully extending the third or fourth pairs of legs,[11]: 578  reaching up to 200 millimetres with the forelimbs extended to grasp the prey.[14] Spiders maintain balance when walking, so that legs 1 and 3 on one side and 2 and 4 on are moving, while the other four legs are on the surface. To run faster, spiders increase their stride length and frequency.[18]: 328 

Spider's chelicera, showing the fang almost completely folded away

In spiders and other chelicerates, there is only one pair of appendages before the mouth, the chelicerae,[10] and in spiders these house fangs that inject poison into the prey.[11] Behind the mouth is a pair of pedipalps ("palps" for short),[10] and those of male spiders are quite large and are used for displaying and mating.[11]

Females of the jumping spider Portia fimbriata have bodies 6 to 9 millimetres long, while those of males are 5 to 7 millimetres long.[5] The cephalothorax is about 4 millimetres long and 3 millimetres wide, and the abdomen about 4 millimetres long and 2.2 millimetres wide.[3] The front of the cephalothorax is large and angular, and the face is broad, high and flat from side to side.[5] Both a male and a female have a generally dark brown carapace (cover over the cephalothorax), reddish brown fangs, a brown underside, and palps dark brown with white hairs,[3] and both have fine, faint markings and soft fringes of hair.[8]: 6  However, the male also has white grooves from side to side of the thorax.[3] While male spiders' palps are larger than females',[11]: 572-573  the palps of P.fimbriata females have a fringe of hair that makes them look about as larger as males'.[4] The legs of Portia fimbriata are spindly and fringed.[19] All species of the genus Portia have elastic abdomens, so that those of both sexes can become almost spherical when well fed, and females' can stretch as much when producing eggs.[15]: 495 

Spiders groom themselves regularly, and more often if wet or dirty. They moisten their fangs, draw the legs one at a time through the fangs, and "comb" the legs with the fangs and palps. The first and fourth pairs of legs are then used to groom other parts of the body, and the only place they appear not to reach is the dorsal surface of the carapace.[12]: 53 

Movement

When not hunting for prey or a mate, Portia species adopt a special posture, called the "cryptic rest posture", pulling their legs in close to the body and their palps back beside the chelicerae ("jaws"), which obscures the outlines of these appendages. When walking, all Portia species have a slow, "choppy" gait that preserves their concealment: pausing often and at irregular intervals; waving their legs continuously and their palps jerkily up and down; and moving each appendage out of time with the others[19][8]: 6  and continuously varying the speed and timing.[20]: 418  Portia′s walk is unlike that of any other spider, and this gait and the spider's fringes gives the appearance of light flickering through the forest canopy and reflecting from piece of detritus.[19][8]: 6  In Queensland, P. fimbriata walks and waves more jerkily and about twice as slowly as other Portias, including P. fimbriata in other areas.[9]: 433 

A spider at take-off when jumping. It fixes a dragline (safety line) just before jumping.

In most species of spider, an individual lays a continuous dragline of non-sticky silk as the spider moves, and from time anchors the dragline to a surface with a spot of sticky silk. This allows the spider to return to the surface if the spider is dislodged. A spider about to jump first lays a sticky silk anchor, and then pays out a dragline as it flies.[11]: 574 

If disturbed, most Portias leap upwards about 100 to 150 millimetres, often from the cryptic rest pose, and often over a wide trajectory. Usually Portia then either freezes or runs about 100 millimetres and then freezes. However, P. fimbriata in Queensland rarely runs or leaps.[9]: 434 

When isolated on little islands, Portias can enter the water by slowly placing the forelegs in the surface of the water, pushing off with the back legs, and adopting a spreadeagle position. A Portia then swims by moving one leg forward at a time.[21]: 285 

Senses

"Squared-off" cephalothorax and eye pattern of jumping spiders

Jumping spiders have eight eyes, the two large ones in the center-and-front position (the anterior-median eyes, also called "principal eyes"[12]: 51 ) housed in tubes in the head and providing acute vision. The other six are secondary eyes, positioned along the sides of the carapace and acting mainly as movement detectors.[6][22]: 16  In most jumping spiders, the middle pair of secondary eyes are very small and have no known function, but those of Portias are relatively large, and function as well as those of the other secondary eyes. [9]: 424 [13]: 232  Although other spiders can also jump, salticids including Portia fimbriata are the only spiders with good vision,[23]: 521 [24] and their main eyes are more acute in daylight than a cat's and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly's.[6] The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately 2 centimetres to infinity,[12]: 51  and in practice can see up to about 75 centimetres.[12]: 53  Like all jumping spiders, P. fimbriata can take in only a small visual field at one time,[5] as the most acute part of a main eye can see all of a circle up to 12 millimeters wide at 20 centimeters away, or up to 18 millimeters wide at 30 centimeters away.[25][a] Jumping spider's main eyes can see from red to ultraviolet.[16]

Generally the jumping spider sub- family Spartaeinae, which includes the genus Portia, cannot discriminate objects at such long distances as the members of subfamilies Salticinae or Lyssomaninae can. However, the main eyes of Portia have vision about as acute as the best of the jumping spiders: the salticine Mogrus neglectus can distinguish prey and conspecifics up to 320 millimetres away (42 times its own body length), while P. fimbriata can distinguish these up to 280 millimetres (47 times its own body length).[7] The main eyes of P. fimbriata can also identify features of the scenery up to 85 times its own body length, which helps the spider to find detours.[8]: 21 

However, a Portia takes a relatively long time to see objects, possibly because getting a good image out of such tiny eyes is a complex process and needs a lot of scanning. This makes a Portia vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds, frogs and mantises, which a Portia often cannot identify because of the other predator's size.[6]

Spiders, like other arthropods, have protruding through their cuticle ("skin") sensors, often modified setae (bristles), for smell, taste, touch and vibration.[26]: 532-533  Unlike insects, spiders and other chelicerates do not have antennae.[10][27]

Hunting tactics

Further information: Portia (genus)

Tactics used by most jumping spiders and by most of genus Portia

Almost all jumping spiders are predators,[b] mostly preying on insects, on other spiders, and on other arthropods.[24] The most common procedure is sighting the prey, stalking, fastening a silk safety line to the surface, using the two pairs of back legs to jump on the victim, and finally biting the prey.[28] Most jumping spiders walk through out the day, so that they maximize their chances of a catch.[29]

Members of the genus Portia have been called "Eight-legged Cats", as their hunting tactics as versatile and adaptable as a lion's.[6] All members of Portia have instinctive tactics for their most common prey, but can improvise by trial and error against unfamiliar prey or in unfamiliar situations, and then remember the new approach. They can also make detours to find the best attack angle against dangerous prey, even when the best detour takes a Portia out of visual contact with the prey,[6] and sometimes the planned route leads to abseiling down a silk thread and biting the prey from behind. Such detours may take up to an hour,[30] and Portia usually picks the best route even if it needs to walk past an incorrect route.[20]: 422  If Portia makes a mistake while hunting another spider, it may itself be killed.[30]

Female P. fimbriata in its web

While most jumping spiders prey mainly on insects and by active hunting,[31]: 340  females of Portia also build webs to catch prey directly.[6][30] These webs are suspended from boughs and rocks, and are funnel-shaped[16][15]: 513  and about 4,000 cubic centimetres in volume.[9]: 429-431  The web is initially built in about 2 hours, and then gradually made stronger.[13]: 239  Portias also can join their own webs on to those of web-based spiders.[6]

A web spider's web is an extension of the web spider's senses, informing the spider of vibrations that signal the arrival of prey and predators. These vibrations vary widely depending on the web spider's species, sex and experience. Portias can pluck another spider's web with a virtually unlimited range of signals, either to lure the prey out into the open or calming the prey by monotonously repeating the same signal while Portia walks slowly close enough to bite it.[31]: 340-341  Such tactics enable Portias to take web spiders from 10% to 200% of a Portia′s size,[6] and Portias hunt in all types of webs.[15]: 491  In contrast, other cursorial spiders generally have difficulty moving on webs, and web-building spiders find it difficult to move in webs unlike those they build: sticky webs adhere to cursorial spiders and to web-builders of non-sticky webs; builders of cribellate webs have difficulty with non-cribellate webs, and vice versa.[9]: 424  Where the web is sparse, a Portia will use "rotary probing", in which it moves a free leg around until it meets a thread.[9]: 433-434  When hunting in another spider's web, a Portia′s slow, choppy movements and the flaps on its legs make it resemble leaf detritus caught in the web and blown in a breeze.[15]: 514  P. fimbriata and some other Portias use breezes and other disturbances as "smokescreens" in which these predators can approach web spiders more quickly, and revert to a more cautious approach when the disturbance disappears.[32]: 313  When using its own web to catch other species of salticids, P. fimbriata conceals its conspicuous palps, which it does not do when stalking a web-spider or occasionally a moving fly.[25] A few web spiders run far away when they sense the un-rhythmical gait of a Portia entering the web - a reaction Wilcox and Jackson call "Portia panic".[20]: 418 

When catching an insect, a Portia sometimes lunges and sometimes uses a "pick up",[9]: 441  in which it moves its fangs slowly into contact with the prey. In some pick ups, Portia first slowly uses its forelegs to manipulate the prey before biting it.[9]: 441 

If a large insect is struggling in a web, Portia usually does not usually take the insect, but waits for up to a day until the insect stops struggling, even if the prey is thoroughly stuck.[9]: 448  When an insect is stuck in a web owned by P. labiata, P. schultzi and all groups of P. fimbriata, and next to a web spider's web, the web spider sometimes enters the Portia′s web, and the Portia pursues and catches the web spider.[9]: 440-441, 444 

When catching an insect outside a web, a Portia sometimes lunges and sometimes uses a "pick up",[9]: 441  in which it moves its fangs slowly into contact with the prey. In some pick ups, Portia first slowly uses its forelegs to manipulate the prey before biting.[9]: 441  However, Portias are not very good at catching moving insects[15]: 516  and often ignore them,[25] while some other salticid genera, especially the quick, agile Brettus and Cyrba, perform well against small insects.[15]: 516 

The webs of spiders on which Portias prey sometimes contain dead insects and other arthropods which are uneaten or partly eaten. P. fimbriata (in Queensland) and some other Portias such as P. labiata and P. schultzi sometimes scavenge these corpses if the corpses are not obviously decayed.[9]: 448 

All Portias eat eggs of other spiders, including eggs of their own species and of other cursorial spiders, and can extract eggs from cases ranging from the flimsy ones of Pholcus to the tough papery ones of Philoponella. While only P. fimbriata (in Queensland) captures cursorial spiders in their nests, all Portias steal eggs from empty nests of cursorial spiders.[9]: 448 

Portias' venom is unusually powerful against spiders.[15]: 491  When a Portia stabs a small to medium spider (up to the Portia′s weight[9]: 428 ), including another Portia, the prey usually rans away for about 100 to 200 millimetres, enters convulsions, becomes paralysed after 10 to 30 seconds, and continues convulsing for 10 seconds to 4 minutes. Portia slowly approaches the prey and and takes it.[9]: 441-443  Portia usually needs to inflict up to 15 stabbings to completely immobilise a larger spider (1.5 to 2 times to the Portia′s weight[9]: 428 ), and then Portia may wait about 20 to 200 millimetres away for 15 to 30 minutes from seizing the prey.[9]: 441-443  Insects are usually not immobilised so quickly but continue to struggle, sometimes for several minutes. If Portia cannot make further contact, all types of prey usually recover, making sluggish movements several minutes after the stabbing but often starting normal movement only after an hour.[9]: 441-443 

Spiders have a narrow gut that can only cope with liquid food, and have two sets of filters to keep solids out. Some spiders pump digestive enzymes from the midgut into the prey and then suck the liquified tissues of the prey into the gut, eventually leaving behind the empty husk of the prey. Others grind the prey to pulp using the fangs and the bases of the pedipalps, while flooding it with enzymes; in these species the fangs and the bases of the pedipalps form a preoral cavity that holds the food they are processing.[11]: 576 

Occasionally a Portia is killed or injured while pursuing prey up to twice Portia′s size. Portia labiata is killed in 2.1% of pursuits and injured but not killed in 3.9%, while Portia schultzi is killed in 1.7% and injured but not killed in 5.3%. In Queensland, P. fimbriata is killed in 0.06% of its pursuits and injured but not killed in another 0.06%. A Portia′s especially tough skin often prevents injury, even when its body is caught in the other spider's fangs. When injured, Portia bleeds and may sometimes loses one or more legs. Spiders' palps and legs break off easily when attacked, Portia′s palps and legs break off exceptionally easily, which may be a defence mechanism, and Portias are often seen with missing legs or palps, while other salticids in the same habitat are not seen with missing legs or palps.[9]: 440-450  A P. fimbriata specimen, now in the Australian Museum collection, regenerated a lost limb about 7 days after moulting.[4]

General tactics of P. fimbriata

All performance statistics summarise result of tests in a laboratory, using captive specimens.[9]: 429-430 

Female P. fimbriatas' tactics and performance show regional differences between the populations in Queensland, the Northern Territory and Sri Lanka.[9]: 424  The table also includes females of P. africana around Lake Victoria, of P. schultzi elsewhere in Kenya and of P. labiata in Sri Lanka for comparison.[9]: 424, 432, 434 

Regional differences in hunting tactics of females[9]: 434, 437, 439 
Prey Performance P. fimbriata
(Q)		 P. fimbriata
(NT)		 P. fimbriata
(SL)		 P. africana P. labiata P. schultzi
Salticid Tendency to pursue prey 87% 50% 94% 77% 63% 58%
Efficiency in capturing prey 93% 10% 45% 29% 40% 36%
Web-building
spider 		Tendency to pursue prey 91% 94% 64% 74% 83% 84%
Efficiency in capturing prey 92% 81% 83% 65% 79% 72%
Insect Tendency to pursue prey 27% 30% 43% 48% 35% 52%
Efficiency in capturing prey 41% 83% 78% 67% 71% 69%

Notes on this table:

  • "Tendency to pursue prey" is the percentage of tests in which the subject pursues the potential prey, and a pursuit starts when the Portia either approaches the prey or shakes the prey's web.[9]: 428-429 
  • "Efficiency in capturing prey" is the percentage of pursuits in which the subject captures the prey.[9]: 428-429 
  • "(Q)", "(NT)" and "(SL)" identify P. fimbriatas from Queensland, Northern Territory and Sri Lanka.[9]: 425 

P. fimbriata in all regions fix their own webs to solid surfaces such as rocks and tree trunks and boughs, while some other Portia species often fix their webs to pliant stems and leaves and on the lower branches of trees.[9]: 432 

Tactics in Queensland

Portia fimbriata from Queensland is the most thoroughly studied araneophagic (spider-eating) salticid. When not using its own web, the Queensland P. fimbriata preys mainly on salticids of other genera, generally using against them a special tactic called "cryptic stalking".[33]

Differences in females' tactics between P. fimbriata (Queensland) and other Portias[9]: 434 
  P. fimbriata (Q) Other Portias
Light levels Lower Higher
Abundance of local web spiders Higher Lower
Preying on web spiders More efficient.
More likely to vibrate the web.
Less likely to leap. 		Less efficient.
Less likely to vibrate the web.
More likely to leap.
Abundance of local salticids Higher Lower
Preying on cursorial salticids More efficient.
Uses cryptic stalking.
Usually swoops.[9]: 440-441, 447  		Less efficient.
No use of cryptic stalking.
Never swoops.[9]: 440-441 
Pursuing and catching insects Less efficient More efficient
Slow, mechanical walking Exaggerated Less pronounced
When mildly disturbed Adopts cryptic pose Makes wild leaps
While mating Courtship uses less vibrations.
Female seldom twists to
lunge and eat the male. 		Courtship uses more vibrations.
Female twists and lunges
and often eats the male.

Notes on this table:

  • In a swoop, P. fimbriata in Queensland slowly moves its cephalothorax above the prey, an other jumping spider, and then quickly driving down with its fangs open. This type of attack is not used by other Portias, including P. fimbriatas from Northern Territory and Sri Lanka.[9]: 440-441 
  • Other Portias, including P. fimbriata outside Queensland, occasionally use isolated aspects of cryptic stalking, such as briefly keeping the palps down or being still for a moment when very close to the prey.[9]: 447 

Adult males are less ready to pursue and less efficient at catching than adult females, especially against larger prey. Males are quite effective against small web spiders, and reluctant to tackle large ones although they catch them in about 50% of attempts. Against other jumping spiders, males do not pursue large ones and pursue about 48% of small ones, catching 84% of those they pursue.[9]: 438  Males of Portia do not build large webs for catching prey ("capture webs").[9]: 429 

Differences in females' pursuit times between P. fimbriata (Queensland) and other Portias[9]: 439-440, 449 
Prey   P. fimbriata (Q) Other Portias
Salticid Median 26 min. 3 min.
Range 1 to 318 min. 0 to 41 min.
Web spider Median 16 min. 5 min.
Range 0 to 583 min. 0 to 465 min.
Insect Median 3 min. 3 min.
Range 0 to 34 min. 0 to 45 min.

When hunting most other salticids in Queensland, P. fimbriata exaggerates the slowness and "choppiness" of its normal gait (sometimes called "robotlike"[8]: 6 ) and holds its palps retracted beside its fangs, as it also does in the cryptic rest pose. If the salticid prey faces P. fimbriata, P. fimbriata freezes until the prey turns away.[19][34]: 750  This "cryptic stalking" appears unique to Queensland, where most other jumping spiders fail to recognize a disguised stalking P. fimbriata as a predator,[19] or even as an animal at all.[9]: 447  P. fimbriata from Queensland uses cryptic stalking against both salticids native to Queensland and against imported salticids.[35]: 445  Other salticids often defend themselves when stalked by other species of Portia or by P. fimbriata outside Queensland, and the Queensland P. fimbriata′s cryptic stalking may be a regional adaptation to the abundant but dangerous salticid prey, especially Jacksonoides queenslandicus, in the local rainforest.[19][34]: 750-751  P. fimbriata uses cryptic stalking even against some oddly-shaped salticids such as the flattened Holoplatys and the elongated, mantis-like Mantisatta longicauda.[35]: 455  All of P. fimbriata′s salticid prey have a pair of large, forward-facing principal eyes, a feature that arachnologists also use to distinguish salticids from all other spiders.[35]: 455-456 

Euryattus, another jumping spider from Queensland, has a partly overlapping range with P. fimbriata′s. In tests, a Euryattus from P. fimbriata′s range recognises the predator and defends itself, while Euryattus specimens from outside P. fimbriata′s range seldom recognise the threat. P. fimbriata finds it easier to catch a Euryattus from outside the predator's home range than to capture the same species from P. fimbriata′s range.[20]: 416-417 

A female Lyssomanes viridis (not the species in Queensland)

P. fimbriata does not stalk at all species of the ant-mimic jumping spider genus Myrmarachne,[36]: 449-450, 455  and uses cryptic stalking only about 20% of the time against other ant-mimicking salticids and against beetle-mimicking salticids.[35]: 453  P. fimbriata also sometimes does not use cryptic stalking against females of the salticid subfamily Lyssomaninae. These females are unusually translucent, and the translucent cuticle makes the anterior-median eyes (front-and-center) show light and dark regions that flicker in and out when viewed head on. Lyssomanine males are not translucent and do not produce this flickering, and P. fimbriata uses cryptic stalking consistently against the males. This suggests that the flickering anterior-median eyes of lyssomanine females may reduce the ability of P. fimbriata to identify these females as jumping spiders.[19]

When encountering J. queenlandicus, P. fimbriata often first notices chemical cues on J. queenlandicus′ silken safety lines and then looks for its prey. The smell makes P. fimbriata to quicker to see the prey,[8]: 6, 12  possibly by lowering thresholds in the visual system.[8]: 36-37  Sometimes P. fimbriata cannot see J. queenlandicus through the prey's camouflage, and "hunts by speculation", jumping high in the air, so that J. queenlandicus betrays itself by turning and looking for the disturbance.[8]: 6 [34]: 749  P. fimbriata then turns toward J. queenslandicus and waves its palps.[37]: 1601  It appears that only P. fimbriatas from Queensland behaves this way while Portias from other areas did not, that P. fimbriata from Queensland reacts this way only to J. queenslandicus, and that J. queenslandicus perceives no chemical warnings that P. fimbriata is around. [34]: 749 

When stalking any non-salticid, P. fimbriata does not use cryptic stalking and does not consistently pull its palps back nor consistently freeze when faced by the prey.[19] P. fimbriata adopts cryptic stalking only after recognizing prey as a jumping spider.[25]

In Queensland, P. fimbriata is reluctant to jump into the webs of prey spider, while other Portias do this at any opportunity.[15]: 515  The Queensland orb web spider Argiope appensa shakes it web violently to shake of intruders, and P. fimbriata finds a detour that allows it to abseil on to the prey.[20]: 422  When the web spider Zosis genicularis is busy wrapping up its own prey and is less aware of other predators, P. fimbriata uses this activity as a type of smokescreen to approach the web spider.[38]: 147 

P. fimbriata uses non-cryptic stalking against lycosid, clubionid, theridiid and desid spiders, and against flies, but does not stalk beetles or ants.[35]: 453 

Unlike other Portias, P. fimbriata in Queensland readily invades the nests of cursorial spiders, plucking or cutting the nest. If the resident spider eventually leaves the nest, P. fimbriata stalks it. If the resident spider tries to counterattack and then retreats into the nest, P. fimbriata may attack the other spider as it re-enters the nest, or may wait motionless until the prey exits. If a stabbed prey spider retreats into the nest, P. fimbriata in Queensland never enters the nest, but waits for the prey to move out, and then P. fimbriata kills it.[9]: 444-447 

The spiders were divided into those that:

  • Jump and then swim
    • Rewarded only
    • Penalised only
  • Swim only
    • Rewarded only
    • Penalised only

A test in a deliberately artificial environment explored the Queensland P. fimbriata′s ability to solve a novel problem by trial and error. A little island was set up in the middle of a miniature atoll, and the space between with them was filled with water. The gap was too wide for the spiders to jump all the way, and the spiders' options were to leap and then swim or to swim only. The testers encouraged some specimens by using a tiny scoop to make waves toward the atoll when the spiders chose the option the testers preferred (leap and then swim, or swim only), and discouraged some specimens by making waves back toward the island when the spiders chose the option the testers did not want - in other words, the testers "rewarded" one group for "successful" behaviour and "penalised" the other group for "unwanted" behaviour.[21]: 284-286  The Queensland P. fimbriata specimens generally repeated successful behaviour and switched if the first try was unsuccessful, irrespective of which option (leap and then swim or to swim only) the testers chose as "good" for each specimen.[39]: 1215 

Tactics in Northern Territory

In the Northern Territory, P. fimbriata has no special tactics against other jumping spiders and tries to treat them as if they were web spiders, and then either tries to jump on them or gives up.[4] Hence this variant is poor at catching other jumping spiders. The Northern Territory variant of P. fimbriata is not as good as the Queensland one as catching web spiders, but better than the Sri Lanka variant and some other species of Portia. It is not enthusiastic about pursuing insects, but very good at catching those it pursues, as the performance table above shows[9]: 424, 432, 434  While pursuits by the Queensland variant typically take 26 minutes, those of the Northern Territory variant typically take 3 to 5 minutes, like some other species of Portia.[9]: 439-440, 449 

Tactics in Sri Lanka

The Sri Lanka variant enthusiastically pursues other jumping spiders and is slightly better than most Portias in tests, but about half as effective as the Queensland variant. In Sri Lanka, P. fimbriata is not a prolific hunter of web spiders or insects, but quite efficiently catches those it pursues.[9]: 424, 432, 434  Like other Portias, the Sri Lanka P. fimbriata typically take 3 to 5 minutes for a pursuit.[9]: 439-440, 449 

Reproduction and lifecycle

Male of P. fimbriata

Before courtship, a male Portia spins a small web between boughs or twigs, and he hangs under that and ejaculates on to it.[9]: 467  He then soaks the semen into reservoirs on his pedipalps, [11]: 581-583  which are larger than those of females.[11]: 572-573 

A laboratory test showed how males of P. fimbriata from Queensland minimise the risk of meeting each other, by recognising fresh pieces with blotting paper, some containing their own silk draglines and some containing another male's draglines. Males also were attracted by fresh blotting paper containing females' draglines, while females do not response to fresh blotting paper containing males' draglines. This suggested that the males usually search for females, rather than vice versa. Neither sex responded to one week-old blotting paper, irrespective of whether it contained males' or females' draglines. A similar series of tests showed that P. labiata showed the same patterns of responses between the sexes.[40]

When meeting another of the same species, P. fimbriata does not stalk but displays by moves quickly and smoothly,[19] and displays at 4 to 27 centimetres away.[25] It raises its legs, its body sways from side to side, and the palps are lowered below the chelicerae ("fangs"). This is very different from the stalking it uses when encountering another salticid of a different species, despite receiving the same visual stimulus, the sight of the other's large anterior-median eyes. Although P. fimbriata is influenced by pheromones much more than is usual among salticids, visual cues alone are enough to start displays and distinguish members of the same species from other salticids, even neither partner moves. The spindly, fringed legs of Portia species may identify members of the same species, as well as concealing these spiders from other salticid species.[19]

In P. fimbriata from Queensland and in some other species, contests between males usually last only 5 to 10 seconds, and only their legs make contact.[9]: 466  Contests between Portia females are usually long and violent,[15]: 518  and in P. fimbriata from Queensland, these often including grappling that sometimes breaks a leg.[9]: 466  A victor may evict a loser and then eat the loser's eggs and take over the loser's web.[15]: 518 [9]: 466  Unlike in other species, victorious females of P. fimbriata from Queensland do not kill and eat the losers.[9]: 466 

A female that sees a male may approach slowly or wait. The male then walks with erect and displaying by waving his legs and palps. If the female does not run away, she gives a "propulsive display"[c] first. If the male stands his ground and she does not ran away or repeat the propulsive display, he approaches and, if she is mature, they copulate.[9]: 461-464  If the female is sub-adult (one moult from maturity), a male and sometimes a sub-adult male of P. fimbriata may cohabit in the female's capture web.[9]: 467  Portias usually mate on a web or on a dragline made by the female.[15]: 518  P. fimbriata typically copulates for about 100 seconds, while other genera can take several minutes or even several hours.[15]: 518 [9]: 465  Unlike in other Portias, females of P. fimbriata do not eat their mates during courting, nor during [9]: 464  or after copulation.[41]

In laboratory tests, Portias including P. fimbriata mate with other species, but the females then produce no eggs.[9]: 466 

P. fimbriata in Queensland prefers to lay eggs on dead, brown leaves about 20 millimetres long, suspended near the top of its capture web; but if a dead leaf is unavailable, most Portias will make silk egg sacs. In Northern Territory, P. fimbriata occasionally lays eggs in a dead leaf, but more usually in a silk egg sac on a small horizontal web suspended on the main web.[9]: 434-435, 469 

Like all all arthropods, spiders moult and, after hatching, the life stage before each moult is called an "instar".[42] Specimens of P. fimbriata become mature at instar 7, 8 or 9. In an experiment using P. fimbriata spiderlings from Queensland, 64% of those fed only on spiders survived to maturity, 37% of those fed on a mixture of spiders and insects survived, and all those fed solely on insects died before reaching the 6th instar.[43] For moulting, all Portias spin a horizontal web whose diameter is about twice the spider's body length and is suspended only 1 to 4 millimetres below a leaf. The spider lies head down, and often slides down 20 to 30 millimetres during moulting.[15]: 496  Portias spin a similar temporary web for resting.[15]: 513  P. fimbriata in Queensland can be very sedentary, in some cases remaining in the same web for over 48 days during a series of moults.[13]: 239 

Ecology

P. fimbriata is found in the rain forests of India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Hong Kong, Taiwan, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Malayasia including Malacca, and in Australia's Northern Territory and Queensland,[3][9]: 424 [44]: 302  and lives on foliage, tree trunks, and boulders and rock walls.[5] Throughout its range, this is the most common species of in the genus Portia.[45] Queensland specimens of P. fimbriata live near running water and with moderate light, while Northern Territory specimens live in caves where the light varies from rather dark to much brighter than in Queensland. Other populations of Portia also live with higher light levels than in Queensland, and some members of these other populations are found in webs exposed to direct sunlight for part of the day.[9]: 431  In Queensland, P. fimbriata shares its environment with its main prey, the very abundant Jacksonoides queenslandicus,[19] and with large populations of non-Portia salticids and non-salticid web-building spiders.[9]: 432 

Ants prey on P. fimbriata while P. fimbriata does not stalk ants, regarding them as poisonous or very unpleasant.[35]: 454-455  All Portias are vulnerable to much larger predators such as birds, frogs and mantises, which a Portia often cannot distinguish.[6] It is often difficult to find P. fimbriata in the wild, as its shape and movements are well disguised. The Queensland variety is quite easy to raise, while the Northern Territory variety is quite troublesome to maintain.[4]

Taxonomy

P. fimbriata is one of 17 species in the genus Portia as of May 2011.[1] This species has been named Salticus fimbriata (Doleschall, 1859), Sinis fimbriatus (Thorell, 1878), Linus fimbriatus (Peckham & Peckham, 1886) and Portia fimbriata (Wanless, 1978),[3][2] and the last is now used.[1][6]

Portia is in the subfamily Spartaeinae,[46] which is thought to be primitive.[15]: 491  Molecular phylogeny, a technique that compares the DNA of organisms to reconstruct the tree of life, indicates that Portia is a member of the clade Spartaeinae, that Spartaeinae is basal (quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders), and that Portia′s closest relative is the genus Spartaeus, and that the next closest are Phaeacius and Holcolaetis.[47]: 53 

Notes

a: ^ Jackson and Blest (1982) say, "The resolution of the receptor mosaic of Layer I in the central retina was estimated to be a visual angle of 2.4 arc min, corresponding to 0-12 mm at 20 cm in front of the spider, or 0-18 mm at 30 cm."[25]

b: ^ Several species of cursorial spiders drink nectar as an occasional supplement their diet, and juveniles of some orb-web spiders digest pollen while re-cycling their webs.[48] One jumping spider (as of 2010), Bagheera kiplingi, is almost totally herbivorous.[49]

c: ^ "Propulsive displays" are sudden, quick movements including striking, charging, ramming and leaps.[9]: 455 

References

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