Belitung shipwreck
2°45′39.00″S 107°35′42.66″E / 2.7608333°S 107.5951833°E The Belitung shipwreck[1][2] (also called the Tang shipwreck or Batu Hitam shipwreck) was an Arabian dhow which sailed from Africa to China around 830 AD.[3] The ship completed the outward journey but sank on the return journey, approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) off the coast of Belitung Island, Indonesia.
It is unclear why the ship was so far from its expected most probable route from China:[4] through the South China Sea, past the southern Vietnam coast and then turning north-west through the Singapore Strait into the Straits of Malacca (between Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra). Belitung is to the south-east of the Singapore Strait by 380 miles (610 km), and this secondary route is more normal for ships travelling from the Java Sea, which is south of Belitung Island, to the Straits of Malacca 380 miles (610 km) north of the Island.[5]
The wreck has given us two major discoveries: the biggest single collection of Tang Dynasty artefacts found in one location, the so called "Tang Treasure"; and the Arabian dhow, which gives a new insight into the trade routes between China and the Middle East during that period. The treasure has been kept as one collection and, during the excavation, the efforts to preserve the integrity of the site and its cargo have resulted in detailed archaeological evidence. This evidence has given new insight into the construction methods used in shipbuilding, and the items and style of artefacts has revealed previously unknown facts about the trade between the two areas.
Discovery
The wreck was discovered by fishermen in 1998 in the Gelasa Strait in 51 feet (16 m) of water.[2] The site location was purchased from local fishermen[1] and a license to engage in excavation was awarded to a local Indonesian company.[6] The dig was subsequently financed and excavated in cooperation with Tilman Walterfang and his team at Seabed Explorations, with security provided by the Indonesian Navy.[6] The excavations spanned two expeditions, one which commenced in August 1998 and the second in 1999.[1] Seabed Explorations provided vessels and financed government naval operations to safeguard the wreck site before and during the monsoon season.[6]
Ship and construction
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The dhow was approximately 21 feet (6.4 m) wide and 58 feet (18 m) long[7] and is remarkable for two reasons; it is the only Arabian ship of its type discovered, and its planks were sewn together using a thin rope made of coconut fibres, rather than using the more traditional methods of pegs or nails.[1]
The shipwrecked dhow was found under sediment which preserved the remains of the wooden vessel, without which the wreck would have been lost due to worms.[8] Wrecks of this age are rare finds and this particular one was in such a good condition that much of the hull was preserved.[9] This has given us an insight into how ships of this kind were constructed, something which has not been seen before in Asia. No Arabian ship of this type had previously been found with its cargo intact.[1]
Pieces of the original timbers were preserved enough to allow scientists to analyse them and determine some of the types of wood used. The ship has been said to be of Arabian or Indian origin as there is little to differentiate between ships of that period from the two areas.[9] It is possible that the ship was constructed in western Asia and bought by Arabian merchants to be used for the Oman to China route; the cargo contains many Arabian-inspired artefacts.[10]
Construction techniques
The ship was constructed around a 50.2 feet (15.3 m) long keel of 14–15-centimetre (5.5–5.9 in) thickness, which is believed to have survived intact.[10] The front of the ship had a 61° angle of rake at the bow where the stem post was joined to the keel with mortise and tenon joints and secured with 16-millimetre (0.63 in) diameter rope.[10]
The hull planks were stitched onto the frames and keel through holes spaced at 5–6-centimetre (2.0–2.4 in) intervals.[10] The boat had a keelson for added strength, which rested on the half-frames.[7]
Flecker compared the wrecked ship to three types of the same period and concluded that the wreck most resembled "lashed-lug" ships of south-east Asia—first used in the 5th century.[7] He said that fully stitched boats were found from the African coast, Oman, in the Red Sea, on the Indian coast, and as far as the Maldives.[10] He notes that Roman references by Procopius in the 6th century tell of boats with planks stitched together in a similar fashion used in "Indian Seas".[10]
Wood types
Samples of wood from the shipwreck were sent for analysis at the forestry and products division of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia.[10] The analysis was conducted by Jugo Ilic of CSIRO. Many of the samples were too badly deteriorated to be positively identified due to the lack of cellulose remaining in the wood cells.[10]
There are many types of wood which have been positively identified: teak (Tectona grandis) was used for the through-beams and is resilient to the teredo worm (the Teredinidae family), the ceiling was made from a Cupressus genus which was possibly Cupressus torulosa, the stem-post is made of rosewood from the Leguminosae family (now called the Fabaceae) and either the Dalbergia or Pterocarpus genus. The wooden box found in the stern area of the shipwreck was made from an Artocarpus genus of the Moraceae family, more commonly known as the Mulberry family.[10]
The species used for the hull planks was not positively identified but is thought to be Amoora of the Meliaceae family. The timber for the frames was similarly not definitively determined, although one frame was probably of Amoora or of the Afzelia genus of the Fabaceae family.[10] Afzelia is interesting in that the three main species A. africana, A. bipindensis and A. pachyloba are mostly found in a small part of Africa, stretching from the mid-western coast in a thin band towards the west coast and stopping short of it by a couple of hundred miles.[10][11]
After analysing the hull form, timber species, and construction methods, Ilic concluded that the wreck was of Indian or Arabian origin. India was considered the more probable place of construction but Arabian construction was not ruled out, as the timber used was commonly imported to the Middle East for use in shipbuilding.[10]
Legacy
Present-day knowledge of the original materials and methods used in construction of this particular Arab dhow stems largely from the shipwreck itself. The Jewel of Muscat reconstruction has shown that the ship resembles a baitl qarib, a type of ship still found in Oman today.[11] Amongst the hull of the shipwreck were large lumps of concretion containing artefacts from the ship's cargo dated to the Tang Dynasty of China around 800 AD, and from where the wreck gets its other names, "Tang shipwreck" or "Tang treasure ship".[11][12]
The ships timbers and artifacts will be shown to the public for the first time in 2011. The world debut exhibition of the collection of artefacts, as well as timbers from the ship, will take place in the ArtScience Museum, adjacent to Singapore's Marina Bay Sands.[13] The significance of the discovery of the shipwreck led to the decision to construct the Jewel of Muscat, an exact reconstruction of the shipwrecked dhow.[14]
Cargo and "Tang treasure"
The wreck held three main types of "wares" in the form of bowls: Changsha ware, the majority of the 60,000 items, were originally packed in either straw cylinders or "Dusun" storage jars; White-ware, manufactured in the Ding kilns and including the earliest known intact underglaze blue and white dishes;[9] and Yue ware from Zhejiang Province.[9] One Changsha bowl was inscribed with a date: "16th day of the seventh month of the second year of the Baoli reign", or 826 AD. This was later confirmed by radiocarbon dating of star anise found amongst the wreck.[5]
The cargo had a surprising variety of influences, or markets, including Buddhist lotus symbols, motifs from Central Asia and Persia, Koranic inscriptions, and green-splashed bowls popular in Iran. According to National Geographic: "One bowl was inscribed with five loose vertical lines, interpreted by some scholars as a symbol whose meaning resonates powerfully in today's world: Allah."[12]
Included in the cargo were items of varying purposes, from spice jars and ewers to inkwells, funeral urns and gilt-silver boxes.[3][12] The cargo was described as "the richest and largest consignment of early ninth-century southern Chinese gold and ceramics ever discovered in a single hoard." by John Guy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.[11]
The cargo also includes spices and resin, and metal ingots used as ballast. There were also special items found which include a gold cup—the largest Tang dynasty gold cup ever found—and a large silver flask decorated with a pair of ducks.[12] The gold cup has pictures of people in various actions on its sides, such as musicians and a Persian dancer. It also has images of two men on its thumb plate with features that appear to be non-Chinese, as they are depicted with curly hair.[12]
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Current disposition
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Tilman Walterfang's company formed a contract of cooperation with the original Indonesian salvage company[6] and as a result the cargo was not sold off piece by piece to collectors. Although there were instances of some looting from the site, particularly between the two excavation periods,[15] Walterfang kept the cargo intact as one complete collection so that it could be studied in its original context; something which has given an "unparalleled into China's industrial capacity and global trade".[16] It was housed in a private conservation facility for six years, where the artifacts were painstakingly conserved (including desalination), studied, and carefully restored by Walterfang's company, Seabed Explorations Ltd. of New Zealand.[17] The work was carried out with the assistance of German conservator Andreas Rettel,[18] who trained at the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum in Mainz. The artifacts were authenticated by Professor Geng Baochang, senior research fellow at the Palace Museum in Beijing. Baochang is the deputy director of Beijing's Forbidden City and one of China's foremost experts on antique ceramics.[19]
The cargo was purchased for around 32 million USD by a private company, the Sentosa Leisure Group, and the Singaporean government in 2005, and loaned to the Singapore Tourism Board.[20]
The debut exhibit of the treasure ran from 19 February 2011 to 31 July 2011 at the ArtScience Museum in Singapore.[21] The display was put on with the collaboration of the Smithsonian Institution, The Freer Gallery of Art, the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, the Singapore Tourism Board, and the National Heritage Board of Singapore.[22] The exhibition is then scheduled to travel the world for approximately five years, to venues which include museums of major importance throughout Asia, Australia, Europe, the Middle East, and the United States.[22]
Controversy
The Sackler Gallery was due to host the US premiere in the spring of 2012, a date set to coincide with the Smithsonian museum's 25th anniversary celebration.[23] On 28 June 2011 it was reported that the museum was postponing the show.[24] The Sackler Gallery has received condemnation of the exhibition due to the timeframe and nature of the original excavation of the artefacts; with arguments put forwards about whether the display should be allowed.[25] Proponents of the arguments against display say that the excavation was for commercial gain and conducted so quickly as to have caused loss of information pertaining to the crew and cargo.[26]: 1 There are also claim that exhibiting the artefacts would be against international agreements on underwater excavations. Proponents of the arguments to display the works claim that the excavation was indeed legal as the work was carried out in accordance with Indonesian law, at the request of the Indonesian government, and in accordance with international laws at the time.[27]
Walterfang has stated that "the overall situation would without doubt be described as 'less than ideal'."[26]: 2 and that "the Indonesian government, fearful of looting, ordered Seabed Explorations to begin an immediate round-the-clock recovery operation."[26]: 1
Conventions by international organisations
The Underwater Archaeology Resolutions that were adopted on 10 September 1993 by the International Congress of Maritime Museums (ICMM) state that
ICMM member museums should follow the Council of American Maritime Museums (CAMM) policy and '...not knowingly acquire or exhibit artifacts which have been stolen, illegally exported from their country of origin, illegally salvaged, or removed from commercially exploited archaeological or historic sites' in recent times (ie. since the 1990 full Congress of ICMM)."
— International Congress of Maritime Museums[28]
They also say that, "ICMM members should recognize that artifacts from underwater sites are integral parts of archaeological assemblages, which should remain intact for research and display." and that, "a commercially exploited heritage site is one in which the primary motive for investigation is private financial gain."[28] The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) ratified a set of rules for preserving and excavating underwater sites at the Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage during 15 October — 5 November 2001.[29] Though the rules set out at the meeting do include preserving artefacts in situ[nb 1] as the preferable option they go on to say:
The commercial exploitation of underwater cultural heritage for trade or speculation or its irretrievable dispersal is fundamentally incompatible with the protection and proper management of underwater cultural heritage. Underwater cultural heritage shall not be traded, sold, bought or bartered as commercial goods. This Rule cannot be interpreted as preventing:
(a) the provision of professional archaeological services or necessary services incidental thereto whose nature and purpose are in full
conformity with this Convention and are subject to the authorization of the competent authorities;
— UNESCO[29]
Although applicable to recent excavations, UNESCO's rules were ratified in 2001—two years after the shipwreck had been excavated.[29]
See also
Notes
- ^ "The preservation in situ of underwater cultural heritage shall be considered as the first option before allowing or engaging in any activities directed at this heritage."
References
- ^ a b c d e "THE BELITUNG (TANG) SHIPWRECK (9th C.)". Marine Explorations. Archived from the original on 08 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|archivedate=(help) - ^ a b "Feature Article: Tang Shipwreck". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 08 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
The ship and its cargo, now referred to as the Belitung wreck
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|archivedate=(help) - ^ a b "Belitung Wreck Details & Photos". Marine Exploration. Archived from the original on 08 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|archivedate=(help) Cite error: The named reference "MarineEX2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ "The Belitung Shipwreck". South East Asian Archaeology. 28. Archived from the original on 08 July 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2011.
The Belitung shipwreck is located a little too far south.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=,|archivedate=, and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b "The treasure trove making waves". BBC News. Archived from the original on 08 July 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|archivedate=(help) - ^ a b c d "Media Backgrounder: Discovery, Recovery, Conservation and Exhibition of the Belitung Cargo". Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds. Freer Sackler, Smithsonian Institute. 30 March 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
The Indonesian navy was permanently deployed at the base camp during the monsoon and did its best to safeguard the site ... A license was issued to a local salvage company by the Republic of Indonesia's National Committee for Salvage and Utilization of Valuable Objects from Sunken Ships (PANNAS BMKT), the government agency with oversight authority for sunken vessels and cargo ... The Indonesian salvage company executed a contract of cooperation with Seabed Explorations.
- ^ a b c Flecker, Michael (1 January 2001). "A ninth-century AD Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesia: First evidence for direct trade with China". World Archaeology. Shipwrecks. 32 (3). Taylor & Francis Ltd.: 335–354. doi:10.1080/00438240120048662.
- ^ "Secrets of the Tang Treasure Ship". Archaeology Daily News. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
- ^ a b c d Geoff Wade (2003). "The Pre-Modern East Asian Maritime Realm: An Overview of European-Language Studies". Working Paper Series. No. 16. Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore: 20.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help);|volume=has extra text (help); More than one of|pages=and|page=specified (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Flecker, Michael (1). "A 9th-century Arab or Indian shipwreck in Indonesian waters". The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 29 (2). IJNA: 199–217. doi:10.1006/ijna.2000.0316.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b c d "Feature Article: Tang Shipwreck". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 08 July 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
...found in Oman and known as a baitl qarib ... it was built of African and Indian wood
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|archivedate=(help); soft hyphen character in|quote=at position 69 (help) - ^ a b c d e "SECRETS OF TANG TREASURE SHIP: ABOUT". National Geographic Channel. 2009. Retrieved 8 July 2011. Cite error: The named reference "NatGeo4" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ "Book now". Marina Bay Sands, Singapore. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds, making its world debut
- ^ The Jewel of Muscat Project (2009). "Information Part 2". Advanced History. Sultanate of Oman. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
In 1998, a shipwreck was discovered off the Indonesian island of Belitung ... Sultan Qaboos bin Said is presenting the people of Singapore with the Jewel of Muscat, a reconstruction of the 9th-century Arab trading ship discovered near the island of Belitung.
- ^ Flecker, M (1 July 2002). "The ethics, politics, and realities of maritime archaeology in Southeast Asia". The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 31 (1): 14. doi:10.1006/ijna.2002.1017.
Local divers immediately movd in, sometimes at night, and removed many artefacts.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); More than one of|pages=and|page=specified (help) - ^ Julian Raby. "Why Exhibit this Material?". Issues Raised by the Belitung Shipwreck. Freer Sackler. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Above all, this cargo was not sold piecemeal but has been kept largely intact. It thus offers unparalleled insight into China's industrial capacity and global trade more than a millennium ago.
- ^ "Conservation" (Flash). Tang wreck. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
Seabed Explorations undertook Desalinate and conserve ... This process lasted six years at a cost of several million US dollars.
- ^ "Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds". Smithsonian Institution. 16. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "Geng Baochang". Pacific Hongxu. 6. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "Sentosa Proceeds to Buy 9th Century Treasure". Singapore: Sentosa. 8 April 2005. Archived from the original on 08 July 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|archivedate=(help) - ^ "SHIPWRECKED: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds". Retrieved 5 July 2011.
- ^ a b "Future Exhibitions". Freer Sackler gallery. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ "Smithsonian and Singapore Organize World Tour of Shipwreck Treasure". Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
- ^ Kate Taylor (28). "Shipwreck Show Postponed". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Kate Taylor (10). "Archaeologists Criticize Smithsonian Over Java Objects". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
Three archaeological associations and three of the Smithsonian's internal research organizations have written to the Smithsonian's secretary, G. Wayne Clough, opposing the exhibition, arguing, among other things, that because of the methods employed by Seabed Explorations, valuable scientific information was lost.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b c Kate Taylor (24). "Treasures Pose Ethics Issues for Smithsonian". pp. 1–2. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ "Smithsonian Hosts Discussion on Issues Surrounding the Exhibition of the Belitung Cargo". Shipwrecked: Tang Treasures and Monsoon Winds. The Smithsonian Institute. 25.
Found in shallow water, the shipwreck was immediately vulnerable to looting and accidental destruction from fishing activity. Recognizing the danger to the site, Indonesian authorities granted a license to a commercial salvage company to recover the ship and its cargo.
{{cite web}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help);|format=requires|url=(help); Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Missing or empty|url=(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ a b "Underwater Archaeology Resolutions Adopted by ICMM Barcelona, Spain 10 September 1993" (PDF). International Congress of Maritime Museums. 10 September 1993. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
- ^ a b c "Convention on the protection of the underwater cultural heritage" (PDF). UNESCO. 2 November 2001. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
External links
