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refer to caption
An 18th-century Dutch hoeker
History
malformed flag imageNetherlands
NameMeermin
OwnerDutch East India Company
Launched1759
Out of service1766
Fatebeached
General characteristics
Class and typehoeker
Tonnage480[nb 2]
Length102ft 2ins[nb 1]
Beam29ft 9 in[nb 1]
Depth of hold10ft 3 ins[nb 1]

The Meermin slave mutiny took place in February 1766 and lasted for three weeks. One of many slave ships owned by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), the Meermin's final voyage was cut short by the mutiny of her cargo of Malagasy people, who had been sold into slavery on Madagascar, during which half her crew and almost 30 Malagasy lost their lives.

The Meermin set sail from Madagascar on 20 January 1766. Two days into the trip Johann Godfried Krause, the ship's chief merchant, persuaded the captain, Gerrit Cristoffel Muller, to release the Malagasy slaves from their shackles and thus avoid attrition by death and disease in their overcrowded living conditions. The Malagasy were put to working the ship and entertaining the crew. In mid-February Krause ordered the Malagasy to clean some Madagascan weapons, which they subsequently used to seize the ship in an attempt to regain their freedom; Krause was among the first of the crew to be killed, and Muller was stabbed three times but survived.

The crew negotiated a truce, under the terms of which the Malagasy undertook to spare the lives of the surviving crew members. In exchange it was agreed that the Meermin would return to Madagascar, where the Malagasy would be released. But gambling on the Malagasy's ignorance of navigation Muller, who had been wounded in the initial attack, instead ordered his crew to head for the coast of southern Africa. After making landfall at Struisbaai, in the Dutch Cape Colony in southern Africa, which the Malagasy were assured was their homeland, 50–70 of them went ashore. Their intention was to signal to the others still on board the Meermin if it was safe for them to follow, but the shore party soon found themselves confronted by a militia of farmers formed in response to the Meermin's arrival; the farmers had understood that as the ship was flying no flags it was in distress.

The Meermin's crew, now led by Krause's assistant Olof Leij, managed to communicate with the militia on shore by means of messages in bottles, and persuaded them to light the signal fires the Malagasy still on board were waiting for. On seeing the fires the Malagasy cut the ship's anchor cable and allowed the ship to drift towards the shore, and after three hours to run aground on a sandbank. Seeing the Dutch militia on the shore preparing to come to the ship's assistance, the Malagasy realised that their situation was hopeless; they surrendered and were once again shackled. Captain Muller, ship's mate Daniel Carel Gulik, and two surviving leaders of the mutiny, Massavana and Koesaaij, were tried in the VOC's Council of Justice. Muller and Gulik were stripped of position, rank, and wages; Massavana and Koesaaij were sent to Robben Island, where Massavana died three years later; Koesaaij survived there for another 20 years. As of 2012, archaeologists are searching for the remains of the Meermin.

Voyage

refer to caption
A square rigged VOC ship approaching the Cape Colony, with Table Mountain in the background, 1762

Between the mid-17th century and 1799, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) transported approximately 63,000 slaves to its Cape Colony, in southern Africa, now part of South Africa.[6][nb 3] The Meermin was a 480-ton square rigged ship of the Dutch "hoeker" type, with three masts. The vessel was built in 1759 in the Dutch port of Amsterdam for the VOC's African trade.[8][nb 2] From December 1765, she was working the coastline of Madagascar under Captain Gerrit Muller[nb 4] and a crew of 56, collecting Malagasy men, women and children for use as slaves in the Cape Colony. Carrying about 140 Malagasy, she set sail from "Toulier", now Toliara, on the south-western coast of Madagascar, on 20 January 1766.[11][nb 5]

Mutiny

In 1766, supercargo Johann Krause was probably the most experienced merchant trading in Madagascar,[nb 4] although he had been "guilty of an earlier indiscretion in 1760",[14] on another VOC ship named "Neptunus".[14] To avoid the loss of profit caused by captive Malagasy dying while at sea, Krause convinced Captain Muller, who was in his first command, and was unwell at the time, to unshackle some of them and let them work on deck.[15] Disease was spreading among the Malagasy in the unsanitary conditions below deck, and the ship's surgeon had reported that, while there were no suitable medicines on board, disease was spreading to the crew.[12] Consequently, two days after the ship had left Madagascar, the crew released a "large party of [Malagasy]"[16] from confinement, the men assisting the crew, and the women providing entertainment by dancing and singing.[17] They set the Malagasy Massavana and some others to controlling and taking care of the sails,[18][nb 6] which has been described as "unheard of, and certainly against all [VOC] regulations".[16] Allowing slaves into secure areas on deck was common practice on most European vessels,[19] and VOC regulations did permit slaves to be released onto the deck from time to time, under careful supervision.[18] But the chief concern was that slaves might jump overboard to escape, rather than that they might mutiny, despite a slave mutiny on the VOC ship Drie Heuvelen in 1753. It was quickly suppressed, but clearly it could happen again, making Captain Muller's agreement to the kind of release that occurred on the Meermin "appear all the more foolish."[20]

According to crew member Harmen Koops,[nb 4] on 18 February 1766,[18] Krause ordered him to bring on deck some assegais, or African spears, and some swords, for the Malagasy to clean.[21] The assegais had been acquired on Madagascar along with the Malagasy, some of whom were experienced in the use of this weapon.[22][nb 7] Krause believed himself to be intellectually superior to the Malagasy,[24] and is reported to have laughed when issuing his order, saying he was sure that others would doubt his wisdom;[12] having set the task, he went below deck for a meal.[18] When the Malagasy had cleaned the weapons and were ordered to return them, they attacked the ship's crew, killing all who were left on deck, including Krause, who had returned when the attack began.[25][nb 8] Also killed in this fight were two of the ship's mates,[nb 9] Bender and Albert, leaving only Daniel Carel Gulik surviving of that rank.[18][nb 4] Some of the surviving crew climbed into the rigging, and others, including Gulik, Koops, Jan de Leeuw, and Krause's assistant Olof Leij,[nb 4] withdrew to the Constapelskamer, or gunroom, which was below decks at the stern of the ship, near the rudder.[27] Captain Muller, who stated that he had been "gazing out over the sea"[18] at the time of the attack, was taken by surprise and stabbed three times by Massavana.[28] Muller escaped to his cabin, and soon climbed down from a window, via the rudder, to join the others in the gunroom.[12] Crew member Rijk Meyer, who had been thrown overboard with others from the rigging, managed to swim around the ship to a rope hanging from the gunroom window, and was pulled to safety by his shipmates.[18] Although the crew who had climbed into the rigging threatened the Malagasy from the fore-mast with hand grenades,[29] "only those that reached the safety of the barricaded [gunroom] ... escaped a brutal death."[30] With Krause dead and Muller wounded, Olof Leij was left in charge of the remaining crew below deck.[24][nb 10]

The mutiny began under the de facto leadership of three men: the primary leader is unknown, but the others were Massavana and Koesaaij.[31] Massavana, a man of 26, had been enslaved by "the king of Toulier",[12] through an elaborate deception.[12] Although Krause had presented the Malagasy with an opportunity to mutiny by allowing them on deck and handing them familiar weapons,[32] the mutiny had been premeditated and organised by the Malagasy, who intended to kill all Europeans on board the ship, and to return to Madagascar.[33] According to Massavana, the Malagasy had "planned for a long time to become masters of the ship [and their] aim was to go back to [their] own country."[12] It may be that the Malagasy had originally intended to sail the ship themselves, as did slaves involved in another mutiny on the VOC ship De Zon, in 1775;[34][nb 11] but they found that they could not control the ship, and the Meermin drifted for three days.[29]

Truces and betrayal

The crew members on the fore-mast initially reached an agreement with the Malagasy: the crew's lives were to be spared on condition that they sailed the Meermin back to Madagascar; but this truce broke down, as a result of which most of those crew members were also killed, and all were thrown overboard.[29] The crew in the gunroom were running out of food and drink, and Muller decided that they should attempt to regain control of the Meermin.[nb 12] Neither Muller nor Gulik took part in the attack, as both were wounded. It was led by bosun Laurens Pieters;[nb 4] twelve crewmen left the gunroom, shooting as they went. Pieters and another of the attack party were killed on deck; the rest retreated back to the gunroom, where another crewman, who had been severely wounded, later died.[18]

On the third day the crew trapped in the gunroom created a small explosion just outside it, using gunpowder, in which Gulik was injured again. Their hope was to frighten the Malagasy into submission,[18] and a female Malagasy who had been held in the gunroom was instructed to tell the other Malagasy that, if they did not surrender, the crew would blow up the ship. The Malagasy responded by saying that they had seen the fearful effect that the explosion also had on the crew, and refused to surrender, again demanding that they be returned to Madagascar.[18] Olof Leij agreed, but Captain Muller ordered the crew to sail the ship towards Cape Agulhas, the southernmost point of Africa. Muller's assessment was that the Malagasy had little skill in seafaring and navigation and therefore would be unlikely to notice the deception,[35] which proved to be the case.[36] After three or four days' sailing they sighted land,[37] the VOC settlement of Struisbaai.[24]

Map of Western Cape, South Africa
Map of south-western Africa, showing locations of Struisbaai, Stellenbosch and Cape Town

The leader of the mutineers was by now suspicious. The orientation of the sunrise, and birds the Malagasy had seen, did not match those of his homeland, which he pointed out to Leij,[12] who spoke enough of the Malagasy language to tell him that the land they saw was a different part of Madagascar.[38] They dropped anchor when the ship was about a mile (1.6 km) from the coast,[12] and the mutiny's leader, with more than fifty – perhaps as many as seventy – other Malagasy, men and women, set off for the shore in the ship's longboat and pinnace.[39] They had promised their fellow Malagasy that they would light signal fires on the beach and send the boats back, if it was safe for them to follow.[40]

Dutch farmers had spotted the ship, and observing that she was flying no flags understood that to be a distress signal.[12] On coming ashore, the Malagasy reached a farm belonging to Dutchman Matthijs Rostok, and discovered that they had been deceived by the ship's crew.[40] Local officials had ordered local Dutch farmers and burghers to form an impromptu militia;[13][nb 13] fourteen of the Malagasy were shot dead, including the "overall ringleader",[31] whose name is unknown, and the rest imprisoned at Wessels Wesselsen's property close by.[13] On 27 February, a local official named Hentz wrote a letter describing events to Johannes Le Sueur, the VOC magistrate for Stellenbosch, about 91 miles (146 km) to the north-west.[nb 4] Two days later Le Sueur arrived in Soetendaal's Valleij, a little more than 4 miles (6 km) north-west of Struisbaai, and "installed himself"[13] in the home of farmer Barend Geldenhuijs.[13] Le Sueur then went to Wesselsen's property, where he interrogated eighteen male Malagasy in an attempt to assess the situation on board the Meermin. On 3 March he went from there to Matthijs Rostok's farm, and began corresponding with the VOC's Cape Colony government, based in what is now the city of Cape Town. A crew member who had come ashore with the Malagasy and subsequently escaped was taken to Le Sueur, who sent him to report in person to the authorities at Cape Town.[13] Meanwhile local farmers and burghers were recapturing Malagasy in small groups. The authorities at Cape Town sent two hoekers, the Neptunus and the Snelheid, with a party of soldiers under two corporals and a sergeant, to assist in retaking the Meermin, but the ships did not arrive until the action was over.[13][nb 14]

Final stages

About 90 Malagasy remained on the ship throughout the following week, waiting for the promised signal fires and growing increasingly impatient.[40] Some of the mutineers decided to build a raft to carry them to the shore in an effort to establish exactly where they were. In a stroke of luck for the crew, they encountered a black shepherd, but he ran away before they could speak to him; believing that they were indeed in Madagascar, they returned to the ship.[13] Meanwhile the surviving crew members were becoming desperate; having observed that the ocean current was setting onshore, and knowing of the arrangements for signal fires, they wrote messages asking for Dutchmen on land to light three fires on the shore to deceive the Malagasy on the ship into believing they were close to home rather than in a "Christian country", and to guard them "should the ship run aground".[12]

Extract from message

Although we trust in the Lord to save us we kindly request the finder of this letter to light three fires on the beach and stand guard at these behind the dunes, should the ship run aground, so that the slaves may not become aware that this is a Christian country. They will certainly kill us if they establish that we made them believe that this is their country.

Olof Leij[12]

Convinced they would be killed if the Malagasy discovered the truth while still on board ship, the crew sealed their messages in bottles and dropped them into the onshore current. The VOC authorities in Cape Town had sent their chief ship's carpenter, Philip van den Berg, with two other ship's carpenters, two pilots,[nb 4] a quartermaster and 20 sailors overland. Carpenters were needed since neither of the Meermin's boats, now onshore, could be used: one was buried in the sand, and the other was in need of repair.[13] The party from Cape Town had arrived by 6 March, and, while Johannes Le Sueur was overseeing the carpenters' examination of the Meermin's boats, he was handed a bottle containing a message signed by Jan de Leeuw. A second bottle, containing a message signed by Olof Leif, was also found and handed to Le Sueur,[36] and the fires were lit on 7 March.[43] One of the messages is preserved in the Cape Archives Repository.[44]

The Malagasy on the ship, seeing the signal fires, cut the anchor cable, allowing the Meermin to drift shorewards. Crew member Rijk Meyer, who had earlier been thrown overboard and swum around the ship to the safety of the gunroom, now swam from the ship to the shore and was brought to le Sueur. He informed le Sueur that the Malagasy on the ship had told him to find out whether the earlier landing party was there, but that he had secretly arranged with the other crew members that, if help was available on shore, he would signal back to the ship by waving a handkerchief above his head.[13] Six Malagasy and another crew member also left the Meermin in a canoe, but a unit of the militia immediately surrounded the party when they landed. One Malagasy, identified by a crew member as the mutiny's overall ringleader, was shot dead, and three others taken prisoner. Of the remaining two, one swam away, and the other was believed either to have swum back to the ship or drowned in the attempt.[13]

Enraged by the crew's deception the Malagasy still on the Meermin launched an attack on the crew, but the crew were able to defend themselves for the three hours it took the ship to run aground. By this time, on 9 March, the ship's carpenters from Cape Town had completed repairs to one of Meermin's two boats, described as a "schuit". The Malagasy saw how close they were to defeat; the ship was grounded on a sandbank, and a force of Dutchmen on shore was preparing to go to the ship's assistance. Olof Leij persuaded the remaining Malagasy to surrender; he promised that if they allowed themselves to be shackled again they would not be punished further. A second canoe, manned by Leij, Daniel Gulik and a ship's boy,[nb 4] went ashore to deliver news of the surrender.[45]

The weather had begun to deteriorate, and it was decided that the schuit was not strong enough to bring the remaining Malagasy ashore. One end of a rope was anchored to the shore, and at low tide volunteers from the Dutch group on shore swam out to the Meermin, bringing the other end of the rope with them and handing it up to the crew on the ship.[13] The crew then helped the remaining fifty-three Malagasy climb down to the Dutch volunteers, who helped them to shore, some carrying children on their backs. The Dutch built a fire to warm the Malagasy after their immersion in the water, and fed them; three wagons took them to Cape Town on 12 March.[45] Of the 140 or so Malagasy who had been shipped, 112 reached the Cape Colony as slaves.[44]

Aftermath

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Typical conditions for slaves on a transport ship

The VOC authorities salvaged as much as possible from the beached Meermin. They recovered nearly 300 firearms, gunpowder and musket balls, compasses, and five bayonets; they auctioned cables, ropes and other items from the ship on the shore. The Meermin was left to break up where she grounded, perhaps finally on 9 April 1766.[46]

Rulings made in this case in the VOC's Council of Justice[23] represented a "huge step in the recognition of oppressed people [such as slaves] as free-thinking individuals."[24] On 30 October 1766, Captain Muller and the surviving ship's mate, Daniel Carel Gulik, were found guilty of culpable negligence, stripped of their rank, docked of their pay, and dismissed from the company.[23] They were also ordered to pay the costs of the case, banned from the Cape Colony, and had to work their passage home to Amsterdam.[45] For lack of sufficient evidence, the remaining mutiny leaders Massavana and Koesaaij were sentenced to be “put on [Robben Island] until further instructions.”[12] The purpose of this was for observation, in the hope that Massavana and Koesaaij might shed further light on how the mutiny had arisen.[47] Massavana died on Robben Island on 20 December 1769; Koesaaij survived there for another 20 years.[12]

Archaeology

On 24 September 1998– South Africa's Heritage Day– the building housing the South Africa Cultural History Museum, a branch of Iziko Museums, was renamed the Old Slave Lodge,[48] commemorating its accommodation of about 9,000 government-owned slaves between the 17th and early 19th centuries.[49][nb 15] In 2004, Iziko Museums started a maritime archaeology project associated with the Old Slave Lodge museum, to find and salvage the wreck of the Meermin; supporting historical and archaeological research was also commissioned, funded by the South African National Lottery.[51]

Iron fastenings were used extensively in wooden ships. This combined with the possible presence of anchors and cannon give fairly good signatures.

Jaco Bashoff[52]

Jaco Boshoff of Iziko Museums, who is in charge of the research, has retrieved the Meermin's plans from the Netherlands, to help identify this wreck among the numerous ships reputed to have run aground in the Struisbaai area.[52] The search for the Meermin has employed an airborne magnetometer survey, as a marine magnetometer survey proved to be impractical owing to the shallowness of the waters.[52] Magnetometer surveys can readily pick out wreck sites, as iron items from the ships can be detected by their recognisable signatures.[52] Of 22 new, possible wrecks identified, 11 were identified as candidates for the wreck of the Meermin.[52] Six are on what is now land, but have been ruled out as they are wrecks of pine-built ships, whereas the Meermin was built of oak.[52] In 2011, the Iziko Museums' travelling exhibition "Finding Meermin" included updates on the progress of Jaco Boshoff's work with the archaeological research team.[51]

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c Meermin is listed as 110 voet in length and had a keel to beam ratio of 10:3; one Amsterdam voet = apx. 11.14 inches.[1]
  2. ^ a b Different sources describe the Meermin as a two-masted or single-masted ship of 450 tons, but the ship's plans obtained by archaeologist Jaco Boshoff confirm her as one of the rarer, and heavier, oak-built three-masters.[2] The ship type "hoeker" was named after its original purpose, using baited hooks to catch fish.[3] Distinctive features of a hoeker are the "apple cheeks" of the bow.[4] This ship's name, "Meermin", is Dutch for "mermaid".[5]
  3. ^ "VOC" is the abbreviated name used by the "Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie", which is rendered into English as "Dutch East India Company".[7]
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i The sources use various 18th-century Dutch terms, not all of which are easily translated into modern English:[9] Captain Muller's rank is given as "Gesaghebber"; Krause's position is given as "Commies", for "supercargo"; Harmen Koops' position is given as both "Koksmaat" and "Hofmeester" (literally "yard-master"), for "cook's mate" and "steward"; Bender, Albert and Gulik's rank was "Onderstuurman", or "ship's mate" (the "ship's mate" ("Stuurman", or "steer-man") ranks included navigators and helmsmen: normally VOC ships also carried an "Opperstuurman", or "chief mate",[10] but none is identified on the Meermin); Leij is described as both "Adsistent", in this context "junior merchant", and "Commies"; Laurens Pieters was "Bootsman", or "bosun"; de Leeuw was "Bottelier", or butler; Le Sueur was a "Landdrost", or "magistrate"; Stuurlieden were maritime pilots; a "scheeps jongjete" was a cabin boy.
  5. ^ The exact number of Malagasy on the Meermin is unknown, since officers on VOC ships carried out their own, undeclared trade, to the extent that this is how "most slaves actually got to the Cape [Colony]";[12] it was also a cause of severe over-crowding on slave ships.[12] Some of the Malagasy gave their number as 150.[13]
  6. ^ Massavana is one of two Malagasy personal names appearing in VOC records for the mutiny, the other being Koesaaij; both forms are self-evidently 18th-century Dutch phonetic approximations, rather than necessarily the actual names borne by the men concerned.
  7. ^ The Malagasy "were provided with lethal weapons, the use of which they were highly familiar with".[23]
  8. ^ According to the Malagasy Massavana, they were given six assegais to clean, but attacked the crew with only four.[12]
  9. ^ Several ranks of deck officer on merchant ships are known as "mates", e.g. Chief Mate, Second Mate and Third Mate.[26]
  10. ^ The shift in leadership of the crew from Muller to Leij has been ascribed to factors additional to Muller's wounding and Krause's death: "[Muller] was not in a fit frame of mind or body … [and,] while Muller certainly stands out as a captain whose authoritative ineptitude created an atmosphere conducive to mutinous violence … one can reasonably assume that [Krause's] understanding of the [Malagasy's] mentality was minimal, and that he must have been a man of limited imagination … [Leij] had been employed in the capacity of slave purchase and management. He would thus have been already personally acquainted with the [Malagasy, and] he would have been the most capable candidate in the eyes of the [crew] to undertake complex … negotiations of this nature… The only possibility for obtaining life and liberty were thus secured in his hands".[18]
  11. ^ The Malagasy on the Meermin had some experience of working the ship:[16] in his testimony to the VOC Council of Justice, Massavana is reported to have said, "We were ordered to work on the ship. We often pulled ropes. We worked with the sails."[12]
  12. ^ The crew members in the gunroom "were forced to subsist on raw bacon and potatoes and a cask of arak."[18]
  13. ^ Reference by modern sources to these local Dutchmen as "burghers", or citizens, is somewhat anachronous, since the Cape Colony was VOC property at the time: a "burger" (sic) was "a vrijburger ["free citizen"], a person not in the service of the [VOC], who, with the consent of the [VOC], made use of company land. Usually ex-servants; in the 19th century [includes] descendants of these vrijburgers, in particular 'Dutch burghers'."[41] The militia is described in the source as a "commando"[13]
  14. ^ The VOC ship Neptunus, which was sent to assist in 1766, was presumably the same ship with which supercargo Krause had been involved in 1760; the VOC owned only one ship of this name from 1757 to 1775.[42]
  15. ^ The building also accommodated convicted criminals and the mentally ill; it was modified to serve as government offices in 1810.[50]

Citations

  1. ^ Amsterdam voet Terminology from the age of sail. Retrieved 10 February 2012;Meermin 1759. VOCsite.nl. 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2012;
  2. ^ Meermin 1759. VOCsite.nl. 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2012; "Slaves Failed Bid for Freedom". Rebirth.co.za. 2000. Retrieved 12 February 2012; "Struisbaai (R319)". Western Cape Government. 2005. Retrieved 12 February 2012; Chandler 2009.
  3. ^ Collins 2001, pp. 68–71; Chandler 2009.
  4. ^ Collins 2001, p. 67.
  5. ^ "Dictionary.com Translator (Meermin)". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 28 January 2012.
  6. ^ "Dutch East India Company, Trade Network, 18th Century". Hofstra University. 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2012; "Secrets of the Dead: Slave Ship Mutiny". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 31 October 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  7. ^ "The Dutch East India Company (VOC) 1602–1799". entoen.nu. Retrieved 28 January 2012.
  8. ^ Meermin 1759. VOCsite.nl. 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2012; Mountain 2005, p. 204; Collins 2001, pp. 68–71; Chandler 2009.
  9. ^ "The Meermin Story". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  10. ^ VOC-glossarium. Historici.nl. 2000. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  11. ^ Alexander 2007b, pp. 87, 89; Alexander 2007a; Mountain 2005, p. 204; Malan 2008.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "Slave Ship Mutiny Program Transcript". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "The Meermin Story: At Zoetendal’s Valleij…". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
  14. ^ a b Alexander 2007b, p. 89(note).
  15. ^ Alexander 2007b, pp. 102–3; "Secrets of the Dead: Slave Ship Mutiny". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 31 October 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  16. ^ a b c Alexander 2007b, p. 89.
  17. ^ Alexander 2007b, p. 89; Mountain 2005, p. 204; "Slave Ship Mutiny Program Transcript". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "The Meermin Story: The Story Begins…". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  19. ^ Webster 2008, pp. 7–8.
  20. ^ "The Meermin Story: The Story Begins…". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2012; Heuvelen, Drie 1752. VOCsite.nl. 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2012.
  21. ^ Alexander 2007b, p. 89; "Slave Ship Mutiny Program Transcript". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
  22. ^ Alexander 2007b, pp. 89–90; Mountain 2005, p. 204; Theal 2010, p. 32; "Slave Ship Mutiny Program Transcript". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  23. ^ a b c Alexander 2007b, p. 103.
  24. ^ a b c d "Secrets of the Dead: Slave Ship Mutiny". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 31 October 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  25. ^ Alexander 2007b, p. 90; "Slave Ship Mutiny Program Transcript". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  26. ^ "Merchant Navy Deck Officer – Pay and progression". careersnz. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
  27. ^ "The Meermin Story: The Story Begins…". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2012; Alexander 2007b, p. 90; "Slave Ship Mutiny Program Transcript". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2012; Huystee, Marit van (ed., 1994), The Batavia Journal of François Palsaert, Western Australian Maritime Museum, p. 55.
  28. ^ "The Meermin Story: The Story Begins…". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2012; "Slave Ship Mutiny Program Transcript". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  29. ^ a b c Mountain 2005, p. 204.
  30. ^ Alexander 2007b, p. 99.
  31. ^ a b Alexander 2007b, p. 100.
  32. ^ Alexander 2007b, pp. 89–90.
  33. ^ Alexander 2007b, pp. 99–102.
  34. ^ Alexander 2007b, pp. 99–100.
  35. ^ "The Meermin Story: The Story Begins…". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2012; Mountain 2005, p. 204.
  36. ^ a b LaFraniere 2005.
  37. ^ Mountain 2005, p. 204; Theal 2010, p. 33.
  38. ^ "Slave Ship Mutiny Program Transcript". Educational Broadcasting Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2012; "Struisbaai (R319)". Western Cape Government. 2005. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
  39. ^ Theal 2010, p. 33; LaFraniere 2005; Mountain 2005, p. 204.
  40. ^ a b c Theal 2010, p. 33.
  41. ^ Woordenlijst - Personeel en organisatie. VOCsite.nl. 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
  42. ^ Neptunus 1757. VOCsite. 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
  43. ^ "The Meermin Story: At Zoetendal’s Valleij…". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2012; Theal 2010, p. 33.
  44. ^ a b "Slaves Failed Bid for Freedom". Rebirth.co.za. 2000. Retrieved 12 February 2012; "Struisbaai (R319)". Western Cape Government. 2005. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
  45. ^ a b c "The Meermin Story: Surrender". Iziko Museums. 2007. Retrieved 11 February 2012.
  46. ^ "The Meermin". Mermaid Guest House. Retrieved 2 February 2012; Meermin 1759. VOCsite.nl. 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2012; LaFraniere 2005.
  47. ^ Alexander 2007b, p. 101.
  48. ^ "History of the building". Iziko Museums. 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012; Worden 2009, p. 32.
  49. ^ "History of the building". Iziko Museums. 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012; Vollgraaff 1997, p. 7.
  50. ^ "History of the building". Iziko Museums. 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
  51. ^ a b "Finding Meermin". Iziko Museums. 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  52. ^ a b c d e f Chandler 2009.

Sources

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