1948 Palestine war
| 1947-1949 War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Arab-Israeli conflict | |||||||||
.jpg) Captain Avraham ("Bren") Adan raising the Ink Flag at Umm Rashrash (a site now in Eilat), marking the end of the war.[7] | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
|
After 29 November 1947 : |
After 29 November 1947 :  Pakistan[6] | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
 David Ben-Gurion Chaim Weizmann Yigael Yadin Yaakov Dori David Shaltiel Isser Be'eri Moshe Dayan Yisrael Galili Yigal Allon Shimon Avidan Yitzhak Pundak Yisrael Amir |
 Habis al-Majali Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni † Hasan Salama † Fawzi Al-Qawuqji Ahmed Ali al-Mwawi Haj Amin Al-Husseini King Farouk I Ahmad Ali al-Mwawi Muhammad Naguib Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| Israel: Approx. 10,000 initially rising to 115,000 by March 1949. |
Arabs: Approx. 10,000 initially, rising to approx. 70,000
| ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| 6,373 killed (about 4,000 troops and 2,400 civilians) | 8,000[9][10]–15,000 killed[11] | ||||||||
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The 1948 Palestine war refers to the war that occurred in the former British Mandate for Palestine between the United Nations vote on the partition plan on November 30, 1947,[12] and the official end of the first Arab-Israeli war on July 20, 1949.[13]
Historians divide the war into two phases:[14]
- The 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine (sometimes called an "intercommunal war")[15] in which the Jewish and Arab communities of Palestine, supported by the Arab Liberation Army, clashed, while the region was still fully under British rule.
- The 1948 Arab–Israeli War after May 15, 1948, marking the end of the British Mandate and the birth of Israel, in which Transjordan, Egypt, Syria and Iraq intervened and sent expeditionary forces that fought the Israeli army.
At the issue of the war, the State of Israel kept most of the area that had been recommended by the UN General Assembly Resolution 181. Israel also took control of almost 60% of the area allocated to the proposed Arab state,[16] including the Jaffa, Lydda and Ramle area, Galilee, some parts of the Negev, a wide strip along the Tel-Aviv-Jerusalem road and some territories in the West Bank. Transjordan took control of the remainder of the West Bank, putting it under military rule, and the Egyptian military took control of the Gaza Strip. No Arab Palestinian state was created.
Demographic changes occurred in the country. Between 600,000 and 760,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from the area that became Israel and became Palestinian refugees.[17] On the other hand, around 10,000 Jews were forced to leave their homes in Palestine.[18] In the three years following the war, about 700,000 Jews immigrated to Israel, residing mainly along the borders and in former Arab lands.[19] Around 136,000 were some of the 250,000 displaced Jews of World War II.[20] And from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War until the early 1970s, 800,000–1,000,000 Jews were expelled or fled from their homes in Arab countries; 260,000 of them reached Israel between 1948 and 1951; and 600,000 by 1972.[21][22][23]
In Israel, the war is known as War of Independence or War of Liberation, because it saw the birth of the State of Israel. Their traditional historiography also sometimes makes this start on 15 May 1948.[24] Some Palestinian and other Arabs refer to this as al-Nakba (the catastrophe), because of the number of displaced people and their failure to create a state with their defeat in the war.
Background
In the immediate aftermath of the United Nations' approval of the Partition plan of Palestine between Jews and Arabs, the explosions of joy amongst the Jewish community were counterbalanced by the expression of discontent amongst the Arab community. Soon after, violence broke out and became more and more prevalent. Murders, reprisals, and counter-reprisals came fast on each other's heels, resulting in dozens of victims killed on both sides. The sanguinary impasse persisted as no force intervened to put a stop to the escalating cycles of violence.
UN Partition Plan
On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution recommending to the United Kingdom, as the mandatory Power for Palestine, and to all other Members of the United Nations the adoption and implementation, with regard to the future government of Palestine, of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union, UN General Assembly Resolution 181(II).[25] This was an attempt to resolve the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioning Palestine into Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem. Each state would comprise three major sections, linked by extraterritorial crossroads; the Arab state would also have an enclave at Jaffa. With about 32% of the population, the Jews would get 56% of the territory, an area that contained 499,000 Jews and 438,000 Arabs, though most of this territory was in the inhospitable Negev Desert in the south. The Palestinian Arabs would get 42% of the land, which had a population of 818,000 Palestinian Arabs and 10,000 Jews. In consideration of its religious significance, the Jerusalem area, including Bethlehem, with 100,000 Jews and an equal number of Palestinian Arabs, was to become a Corpus Separatum, to be administered by the UN.[26]
The Jewish leadership accepted the partition plan as "the indispensable minimum,"[27] glad to gain international recognition but sorry that they did not receive more.[28]
Arguing that the partition plan was unfair to the Arabs with regard to the population balance at that time, the representatives of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab League firmly opposed the UN action and even rejected its authority to involve itself in the entire matter.[29] They upheld "that the rule of Palestine should revert to its inhabitants, in accordance with the provisions of [...] the Charter of the United Nations."[30] According to Article 73b of the Charter, the UN should develop self-government of the peoples in a territory under its administration.
1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine
The 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine lasted from 30 November 1947, the day after the United Nations General Assembly vote[31] to the termination of the British Mandate on 14 May 1948. During the first two months of the Civil War around 1,000 people were killed and 2,000 people injured.[32] By the end of March, the figure had risen to 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded.[33] These figures correspond to an average of more than 100 deaths and 200 casualties per week in a population of 2,000,000.
From January onwards, operations became increasingly militarized, with the intervention of a number of Arab Liberation Army regiments inside Palestine, each active in a variety of distinct sectors around the different coastal towns. They consolidated their presence in Galilee and Samaria.[34] Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni came from Egypt with several hundred men of the Army of the Holy War. Having recruited a few thousand volunteers, al-Husayni organised the blockade of the 100,000 Jewish residents of Jerusalem.[35] To counter this, the Yishuv authorities tried to supply the city with convoys of up to 100 armoured vehicles, but the operation became more and more impractical as the number of casualties in the relief convoys surged. By March, Al-Hussayni's tactic had paid off. Almost all of Haganah's armoured vehicles had been destroyed, the blockade was in full operation, and hundreds of Haganah members who had tried to bring supplies into the city were killed.[36] The situation for those who dwelt in the Jewish settlements in the highly-isolated Negev and North of Galilee was even more critical.
This situation caused the USA to withdraw their support for the Partition plan, thus encouraging the Arab League to believe that the Palestinian Arabs, reinforced by the Arab Liberation Army, could put an end to partition. The British, on the other hand, decided on the 7 February 1948, to support the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by Transjordan.[37]
While the Jewish population had received strict orders requiring them to hold their ground everywhere at all costs,[38] the Arab population was more affected by the general conditions of insecurity to which the country was exposed. Up to 100,000 Arabs, from the urban upper and middle classes in Haifa, Jaffa and Jerusalem, or Jewish-dominated areas, evacuated abroad or to Arab centers eastwards.[39]
Ben-Gurion invested Yigal Yadin with the responsibility to come up with a plan in preparation for the announced intervention of the Arab states. The result of his analysis was Plan Dalet, which was put in place from the start of April onwards. The adoption of Plan Dalet marked the second stage of the war, in which Haganah passed from the defensive to the offensive.
The first operation, named Nachshon, consisted of lifting the blockade on Jerusalem. 1500 men from Haganah's Givati brigade and Palmach's Harel brigade conducted sorties to free up the route to the city between 5 April and 20 April. The operation was successful, and enough foodstuffs to last 2 months were trucked into to Jerusalem for distribution to the Jewish population.[40] The success of the operation was assisted by the death of Al-Husayni in combat. During this time, and independently of Haganah or the framework of Plan Dalet, irregular troops from Irgun and Lehi formations massacred a substantial number of Arabs at Deir Yassin, an event which, though publicly deplored and criticized by the principal Jewish authorities, had a deep impact on the morale of the Arab population.
At the same time, the first large-scale operation of the Arab Liberation Army ended in a "débâcle", having been roundly defeated at Mishmar HaEmek,[41] coinciding with the loss of their Druze allies through defection.[42]
Within the framework of the establishment of Jewish territorial continuity foreseen by Plan Dalet, the forces of Haganah, Palmach and Irgun intended to conquer mixed zones. Palestinian Arab society was shaken. Tiberias, Haifa, Safed, Beisan, and Jaffa were taken prior to the end of the Mandate, with Acre falling shortly after, resulting in the flight of more than 250,000 Palestinian Arabs.[43]
The British had essentially withdrawn their troops. The situation pushed the leaders of the neighboring Arab states to intervene, but their preparation was not finalised, and they could not assemble sufficient forces to turn the tide of the war. The majority of Palestinian Arab hopes lay with the Arab Legion of Transjordan's monarch, King Abdullah I, but he had no intention of creating a Palestinian Arab-run state, since he hoped to annex as much of the territory of the British Mandate for Palestine as he could. He was playing a double-game, being just as much in contact with the Jewish authorities as with the Arab League.
In preparation for the intervention from neighbouring states, Haganah successfully launched Operations Yiftah[44] and Ben-'Ami[45] to secure the Jewish settlements of Galilee, and Operation Kilshon, which created a united front around Jerusalem. The inconclusive meeting between Golda Meir and Abdullah I, followed by the Kfar Etzion massacre on the 13 May by the Arab Legion, led to predictions that the battle for Jerusalem would be merciless.
Course of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War
On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel.[46]
In an official[47] cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the UN Secretary-General on 15 May 1948, the former stated the only fair and just solution to the problem of Palestine is the creation of United State of Palestine. The Arab League claimed the Plan of Partition was invalid, as it was opposed by Palestine's Arab majority, and maintained that the absence of legal authority made it necessary to intervene to protect Arab lives and property.[48] Over the next few days, Arab contingents from Egypt, Jordan, Irak and Syria intervened in Palestine and fought the Israelis. They were suported by corps of volunteers from Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Yemen.
Truce
The UN declared a truce on 29 May, which came into effect on 11 June and lasted 28 days. The ceasefire was overseen by UN mediator Folke Bernadotte and a team of UN Observers made up of army officers from Belgium, United States, Sweden and France.[49] Bernadotte was voted in by the General Assembly to "assure the safety of the holy places, to safeguard the well being of the population, and to promote 'a peaceful adjustment of the future situation of Palestine'".[50] The truce was designed to last 28 days and an arms embargo was declared with the intention that neither side would make any gains from the truce. Neither side respected the truce; both found ways around the restrictions placed on them. Both the Israelis and the Arabs used this time to improve their positions, a direct violation of the terms of the ceasefire. "The Arabs violated the truce by reinforcing their lines with fresh units and by preventing supplies from reaching isolated Israeli settlements; occasionally, they opened fire along the lines".[51] The Israeli Defense Forces were able to acquire weapons from communist Czechoslovakia as well as improve training of forces and reorganization of the army during this time. Yitzhak Rabin, an IDF commander at the time of the war and later Israel's fifth Prime Minister, stated "[w]ithout the arms from Czechoslovakia... it is very doubtful whether we would have been able to conduct the war".[52] As well as violating the arms and personnel embargo, they also sent fresh units to the front lines like the Arabs.[51] The Israel army increased its manpower from approximately 30,000 or 35,000 men to almost 65,000 during the truce. They were also able to increase their arms supply to "more than twenty-five thousand rifles, five thousand machine guns, and more than fifty million bullets".[51] As the truce commenced, a British officer stationed in Haifa stated that the four-week-long truce "would certainly be exploited by the Jews to continue military training and reorganization while the Arabs would waste [them] feuding over the future divisions of the spoils".[51] This officer was correct for the Jews were able to reorganize and reequip while the Arabs became unprepared to return to combat.
Operations Dani and Dekel
Israeli operations labeled Dani and Dekel broke the truce and caused 60,000 Palestinian inhabitants to be forcibly expelled from Ramlah and Lydda. In Ben-Gurion's view Ramlah and Lydda constituted a special danger because their proximity might encourage co-operation between the Egyptian army, which had started its attack on Kibbutz Negbah, near Ramlah, and the Arab Legion, which had taken the Lydda police station. However, the author considers that Operation Dani, under which the two towns were seized, revealed that no such co-operation existed. Additionally, widespread looting took place during these operations. In total, about 100,000 Palestinians became refugees in this stage according to Morris.[53]
Nazareth was captured on 16 July, and by the time the second truce took effect at 19:00 18 July, the whole lower Galilee from Haifa Bay to the Sea of Galilee was captured by Israel.
Operation Yoav and Hiram
On 15 October, the IDF launched Operation Yoav in the northern Negev. Its goal was to drive a wedge between the Egyptian forces along the coast and the Beersheba-Hebron-Jerusalem road and ultimately to conquer the whole Negev. Yoav was headed by the Southern Front commander Yigal Allon. The operation was a huge success, shattering the Egyptian army ranks and forcing the Egyptian forces to retreat from the northern Negev, Beersheba and Ashdod. On 22 October, Israeli naval commandos sank the Egyptian flagship Emir Farouk.
On 22 October, the third truce went into effect.[54]
On 24 October, the IDF launched Operation Hiram and captured the entire upper Galilee originally attributed to the Arab state by the Partition Plan, driving the ALA back to Lebanon. At the end of the month, Israel had captured the whole Galilee and had advanced 5 miles (8.0 km) into Lebanon to the Litani River.
On 22 December, the IDF drove the remaining Egyptian forces out of Israel with Operation Horev (also called Operation Ayin). The goal of the operation was to secure the entire Negev from Egyptian presence, destroying the Egyptian threat on Israel's southern communities and forcing the Egyptians into a ceasefire. The operation was a decisive Israeli victory, and Israeli raids into the Nitzana area and the Sinai peninsula forced the Egyptian army, which was encircled in the Gaza Strip. On 7 January 1949, a truce was achieved. Israeli forces withdrew from Sinai and Gaza under international pressure.
On 5 March, Operation Uvda was launched. On 10 March, the Israelis reached Umm Rashrash (where Eilat was built later) and took it without a battle. The Negev Brigade and Golani Brigade took part in the operation. They raised a hand-made flag ("The Ink Flag") and claimed Umm Rashrash for Israel.
Aftermath
Borders
In 1949, Israel signed separate armistices with Egypt on 24 February, Lebanon on 23 March, Jordan on 3 April, and Syria on 20 July. The new borders of Israel, as set by the agreements, encompassed about 78% of Mandatory Palestine as it stood after the independence of Jordan in 1946. This was about 18% more than the UN partition proposal allotted it. These ceasefire lines were known afterwards as the "Green Line". The Gaza Strip and the West Bank were occupied by Egypt and Jordan respectively. The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization and Mixed Armistice Commissions were set up to monitor ceasefires, supervise the armistice agreements, to prevent isolated incidents from escalating, and assist other UN peacekeeping operations in the region.
Casualities
Israel lost 6,373 of its people, about 1% of its population in the war. About 4,000 were soldiers and the rest were civilians. The exact number of Arab losses is unknown but is estimated at between 8,000[9] and 15,000.[11]
Demographic consequences
During the 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the 1948 Arab–Israeli War that followed, around 750,000 Palestinians fled or were expelled from their homes. In 1951, the UN Conciliation Commission for Palestine estimated that the number of Palestinian refugees displaced from Israel was 711,000.[55] This number did not include displaced Palestinians inside Israeli-held territory. The list of villages depopulated during the Arab-Israeli conflict includes more than 400 Arab villages. It also includes about ten Jewish villages and neighbourhoods.
The Causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus are a controversial topic among historians.[56]
The Palestinian refugee problem and the debate around the right of their return are also major issues of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Arab Palestinians have staged annual demonstrations and protests on 15 May of each year. The popularity and number of participants in these annual al Nakba demonstrations has varied over time. During the al-Aqsa Intifada after the failure of the Camp David 2000 Summit, the attendance at the demonstrations against Israel increased.
During the 1948 War, around 10,000 Jews were forced to evacuate their homes in Palestine or Israel,[57] but in the three years following the war, 700,000 Jews settled in Israel, mainly along the borders and in former Arab lands.[58] Around 136,000 came from the 250,000 displaced Jews of World War II.[20] About another 270,000 came from Eastern Europe. The bulk of the rest—around 300,000 people—constituted the first wave of a total of 750,000 or more Jews who over the course of the next thirty years would flee an increasingly hostile Arab world.[59][60][61]
Controversies
After the war, Israeli and Palestinian historiographies differed on the interpretation of the events of 1948. In the West the majority view was of a tiny group of vastly outnumbered and ill-equipped Jews fighting off the massed strength of the invading Arab armies. It was also widely believed that the Palestinian Arabs left their homes on the instruction of their leaders. In 1980, with the opening of the Israeli and British archives, Israeli historians started giving new insights on the history of this time period. In particular, the role played by Abdullah I of Jordan, that played by the British government, the Arab aims during the war, the balance of force, and the events related to the Palestinian exodus have been nuanced or given new interpretations.[62] Some of them are still hotly debated among historians and commentators of the conflict today.[63]
See also
- United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine
- List of Israeli military operations in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war
- List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
Further reading
- Yoav Gelber, Palestine 1948, Sussex Academic Press, Brighton, 2006, ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0
- Saleh Abdel Jawad, The Arab and Palestinian Narratives of the 1948 War, in Robert I. Rotberg, Israeli and Palestinian Narratives of Conflict, Indiana University Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-253-21857-5.
- Efraim Karsh, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948, Osprey publishing, 2002.
- Walid Khalidi (ed.), All that remains.ISBN 978-0-88728-224-9.
- Walid Khalidi, Selected Documents on the 1948 Palestine War, Journal of Palestine Studies, 27(3), 79, 1998.
- Benny Morris, 1948, Yale University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9
- Ilan Pappe, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine, Oneworld Publications, 2006, ISBN 978-1-85168-555-4
- Eugene Rogan & Avi Shlaim, The War for Palestine - Rewriting the history of 1948, Cambridge University Press, 2001.
- David Tal, War in Palestine, 1948. Strategy and Diplomacy, Routledge, 2004.
References
- ^ Arab states against israel, 1948 -A map from New York Times including Mutawakkilite Yemen Template:Wayback
- ^ John Pike. "Israeli War of Independence". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
- ^ Benny Morris (2008), 1948: A history of the first Arab-Israeli war. pg. 332
- ^ "The formation of Israel by The Ovi Team". Ovi Magazine. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
- ^ "Lonely Israel". Gp Examiner. 31 March 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2010. [dead link]
- ^ Moshe Yegar, "Pakistan and Israel," Jewish Political Studies Review 19:3–4 (Fall 2007)
- ^ Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli wars. 1982, ISBN 978-0-85368-367-4.
- ^ Pollack, 2004; Sadeh, 1997
- ^ a b Casualties in Arab-Israeli Wars
- ^ [citation needed]
- ^ a b Chris Cook, World Political Almanac, 3rd Ed. (Facts on File: 1995)
- ^ Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine A/RES/181(II)(A+B) 29 November 1947 Template:Wayback
- ^ This corresponds to the signature of the armistice agreement between Syria and Israel. Others consider the war ended at the last cease fire on January 8, 1949.
- ^ Demise of the British empire in the Middle East: Britain's responses to nationalist movements, 1943-55, by Michael Joseph Cohen, Martin Kolinsky. 1998. p. 54.
- ^ David Tal, War in Palestine, 1948. Strategy and Diplomacy, Routledge, 2004.
- ^ Cragg, Kenneth. Palestine. The Prize and Price of Zion. Cassel, 1997. ISBN 978-0-304-70075-2. Pages 57, 116.
- ^ "It is impossible to arrive at a definite persuasive estimate. My predeliction would be to opt for the loose contemporary British formula, that of 'between 600,000 and 760,000' refugees; but, if pressed, 700,000 is probably a fair estimate" - Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, p603-4.
- ^ "Jewish Refugees of the Israeli Palestinian Conflict". Mideast Web. Retrieved 2008-07-13.
- ^ Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, chap. VI.
- ^ a b Displaced Persons retrieved on 29 October 2007 from the US Holocaust Museum.
- ^ Schwartz, Adi (January 4, 2008). "All I Wanted was Justice". Haaretz.
- ^ Malka Hillel Shulewitz, The Forgotten Millions: The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands, Continuum 2001, pp. 139 and 155.
- ^ Ada Aharoni "The Forced Migration of Jews from Arab Countries, Historical Society of Jews from Egypt website. Accessed February 1, 2009.
- ^ Howard Sachar, A History of Israel. From the Rise of Zionisme to our Time, 2007, p.315.
- ^ "A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947". domino.un.org. 1947. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
- ^ Pappe, 2006, p. 35
- ^ El-Nawawy, 2002, p. 1-2
- ^ Morris, 'Righteous Victims ...', 2001, p. 190
- ^ Gold, 2007, p. 134
- ^ Arab League Declaration on the Invasion of Palestine 15 May 1948, Jewish Virtual Library. Template:WebCite
- ^ "A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947". domino.un.org. 1947. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
- ^ Special UN commission (16 April 1948), § II.5
- ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p.85
- ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp.51-56
- ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), chap.7, pp.131-153
- ^ Benny Morris (2003), p.163
- ^ Henry Laurens (2005), p.83
- ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p.163
- ^ Benny Morris (2003), p.67
- ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), pp.369-381
- ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp.242-243
- ^ Benny Morris (2003), p.242
- ^ Henry Laurens (2005), pp.85-86
- ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp.248-252
- ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp.252-254
- ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel: 14 May 1948 Retrieved 9 April 2012
- ^ PDF copy of Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations: S/745: 15 May 1948: Retrieved 26 May 2012
- ^ "The Origins and Evolution of the Palestine Problem: 1917–1988. Part II, 1947–1977".
- ^ "The First Truce". Retrieved 2009-02-22.
- ^ Morris, Benny (2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9.
- ^ a b c d Morris, Benny. 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War.
- ^ Bregman, Ahron (1999). The Fifty Years War: Israel and the Arabs. BBC Books.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthor=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Morris, 2004, p. 448.
- ^ Shapira, Anita. Yigal Allon; Native Son; A Biography Translated by Evelyn Abel, University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978-0-8122-4028-3 p 247
- ^ General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Covering the Period from 11 December 1949 to 23 October 1950, published by the United Nations Conciliation Commission, 23 October 1950. (U.N. General Assembly Official Records, 5th Session, Supplement No. 18, Document A/1367/Rev. 1) Template:Wayback
- ^ http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/hughesMatthew.html The War for Palestine. Rewriting the History of 1948 by Eugene L. Rogan and Avi Shlaim . Accessed 2009-08-08. Archived 2009-08-11.
- ^ "Jewish Refugees of the Israeli Palestinian Conflict". Mideast Web. Retrieved 2008-07-13.
- ^ Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, chap.VI.
- ^ Sachar, pp. 395–403.
- ^ De Gaucy, Gerald, The New State of Israel. Derek Verschoyle Ltd, London. 1952. Pages 28,29. 15 May 1948 to 31st December 1949 - 22.3% from "Asia" including 10.4% from Yemen; 13.9 % from Africa, 2.1% from Egypt; 58.3% from Europe including 22.3% from Poland. 1January 1950 to 31st December 1950 - 34.3% from Asia, 18.6 from Iraq; Africa 15.7% with 4.6% from Egypt; Europe 48% with 27.7% from Rumania. USA between 0.5% and 1%.
- ^ Stearns, 2001, p. 966.
- ^ Avi Shlaim, The Debate about 1948, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Aug., 1995), pp.287-304.
- ^ Benny Morris, Benny Morris on fact, fiction, & propaganda about 1948, The Irish Times, 21 February 2008, reported by Jeff Weintraub Template:WebCite
