Greek Crimea
 | It has been suggested that this article should be split into articles titled Crimean peninsula and History of Crimea. (discuss) (March 2014) |
Taurica, Tauric Chersonese, and Tauris were names by which the Crimean Peninsula was known in Classical antiquity and well into the Early modern period. The Greeks named the region after its inhabitants, the Tauri: Ταυρικὴ Χερσόνησος (Taurikē Khersonesos) or Χερσόνησος Ταυρική (Khersonesos Taurikē), "Tauric peninsula" ("khersonesos" literally means "peninsula"). Chersonesus Taurica is the Latin version of the Greek name. This Latin variant of the name should not be confused with the ancient city of Chersonesus (modern Sevastopol), which was in Taurica.
Tauri
As attested in Classical Greek sources, the Tauri (Ταῦροι in Ancient Greek), also Scythotauri, Tauri Scythae, or Tauroscythae, were the people native to the southern Crimean Peninsula at the time. They inhabited the Crimean Mountains and the narrow strip of land between the mountains and the Black Sea.
The Tauri are thought to have been an offshoot of the Cimmerians, whom the Scythians expelled from their original homeland further north in the 7th century BC. Alternative theories relate them to the Abkhaz and Adyghe peoples, which at that time resided much farther west than today.
In Book IV of his Histories, Herodotus describes the Tauri as living "entirely from war and plundering." They were notorious for their worship of a virgin goddess, to whom they sacrificed shipwrecked travelers and waylaid Greeks. The Greeks identified the Tauric goddess with Artemis Tauropolos or with Iphigeneia, daughter of Agamemnon. Close identifications of Iphigenia with Artemis have encouraged some scholars to believe that she was originally a Taurian hunting goddess whose cult was subsumed by the Olympian Artemis.[1]
According to some Greek legends, Iphigeneia was rescued by Artemis from being sacrificed by her father and brought to Taurica. There she became a priestess at the Temple of Artemis in the land of the Tauri, where she prepared human victims for sacrifice. These legends became the subject of the plays Iphigenia in Tauris by Euripides and Iphigenie auf Tauris by Goethe.[2]
Although the Crimean coast eventually came to be dominated by Greek (and subsequently Roman) colonies, the Tauri remained a major threat to Greek power in the region. They engaged in piracy against ships on the Black Sea, mounting raids from their base at Symbolon (present-day Balaklava).[3] By the 2nd century BC they had become subject-allies of the Scythian king Scilurus.[2]
Scythians
The Crimean Peninsula north of the Crimean Mountains was occupied by Scythian tribes. Their center was the city of Scythian Neapolis (Ancient Greek: Σκυθική Νεάπολις) on the outskirts of present-day Simferopol. Existing from the end of the 3rd century BC until the second half of the 3rd century AD, the town ruled over a small kingdom, led by Skilurus and Palacus (who were probably buried at the local mausoleum), covering the lands between the lower Dnieper River and northern Crimea. In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, Scythian Neapolis was a city "with a mixed Scythian-Greek population, strong defensive walls and large public buildings constructed using the orders of Greek architecture".[4] Neapolis was destroyed in the mid-3rd century AD by the Goths.
Another important Scythian archaeological site in Crimea is Kul-Oba, an ancient burial tumulus (kurgan), located near Kerch in eastern Crimea. Kul-Oba was the first Scythian royal barrow to be excavated in modern times. Uncovered in 1830, the stone tomb yielded a wealth of precious artifacts which drew considerable public interest to Scythian world. Of particular interest is an intricately granulated earring with two Nike figurines, now in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.[5]
Greek colonies in Taurica
Greek city-states began establishing colonies along the Black Sea coast of Crimea in the 7th or 6th century BC.[6] Several colonies were established in the vicinity of the Strait of Kerch, then known as the Cimmerian Bosporus. The density of colonies around the Cimmerian Bosporus was unusual for Greek colonization and reflected the importance of the area. The majority of these colonies were established by Ionians from the city of Miletus in Asia Minor.[7]
The earliest, Panticapaeum (Ancient Greek: Παντικάπαιον, romanized: Pantikápaion), founded in the late 7th or early 6th century BC, was established as an apoikia of Miletus (that is, a true colony and not a mere entrepot).[7] This important city was situated on Mount Mithridat on the western side of the Cimmerian Bosporus, in the present-day city of Kerch. During the first centuries of the city's existence, imported Greek articles predominated: pottery, terracottas, and metal objects, probably from workshops in Rhodes, Corinth, Samos, and Athens (a style of Athenian vase found extensively at the site is named the Kerch style). Local production, imitated from the models, was carried on at the same time. Local potters imitated the Hellenistic bowls known as the Gnathia style as well as relief wares—Megarian bowls. The city minted silver coins from the 5th century BC and gold and bronze coins from the 4th century BC.[8] At its greatest extent it occupied 100 hectares (250 acres).[9]
Other Milesian colonies on the Crimean side of the Cimmerian Bosporus included Theodosia, Kimmerikon, Tyritake, and Myrmekion. Theodosia (Ancient Greek: Θεοδοσία), present day Feodosia, was founded in the 6th century BC according to archaeological evidence. It is first recorded in history as resisting the attacks of Satyrus, ruler of the Bosporan Kingdom, about 390 BC. His successor Leucon transformed it into an important port for shipping wheat to Greece, especially to Athens.[10] Kimmerikon (Ancient Greek: Κιμμερικόν) was founded in the 5th century BC on the southern shore of the Kerch Peninsula, at the western slope of Mount Opuk, roughly 50 kilometres (31 mi) southwest of Panticapaeum. Its name may refer to an earlier Cimmerian settlement on the site. Kimmerikon would become an important stronghold defending the Bosporan Kingdom from the Scythians.[11] Tyritake (Ancient Greek: Τυριτάκη) was situated in the eastern part of Crimea, about 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) south of Panticapaeum. It is tentatively identified with the ruins in the Kerch district of Kamysh-Burun (Arshintsevo), on the shore of the Cimmerian Bosporus. There are only few short mentions about Tyritake in ancient literary sources. Archaeological projects have established that the colony, founded about the mid-6th century BC, specialized in crafts and viticulture. In the first centuries AD, fishing and wine production became the economic mainstay of the town. Myrmēkion (Ancient Greek: Μυρμήκιον) was situated on the shore of the Cimmerian Bosporus, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) north of Panticapaeum. It was founded in the mid-6th century BC as an independent polis, which soon became one of the richest in the region. In the 5th century BC, the town specialized in winemaking and minted its own coinage. It was surrounded by towered walls, measuring some 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) thick.[12]
Nymphaion (Ancient Greek: Νύμφαιον) was founded by colonists from Miletus’ rival Samos between 580 to 560 BC. It was situated of about 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) south of Panticapaeum. There is no archaeological evidence for the presence of Scythians in the area before the city's founding.[13] The town issued its own coins and generally prospered in the period of classical antiquity from its control of the cereal trade. Athens chose Nymphaion as its principal military base in the region ca. 444 BC and Gylon, the grandfather of Demosthenes, suffered banishment from Athens on charges that he had betrayed Nymphaeum during the Peloponnesian War. It was annexed to the Bosporan Kingdom by the end of the century.
In the 5th century BC, Dorians from Heraclea Pontica on the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor founded the sea port of Chersonesos in southwestern Crimea (outside modern Sevastopol). It was a site with good deep-water harbors located at the edge of the territory of the indigenous Taurians.[14] During much of the Classical Period, Chersonesus was a democracy ruled by a group of elected archons and a council called the Demiurgi. As time passed the government grew more oligarchic, with power concentrated in the hands of the archons. Up to the middle of the 4th century BC, Chersonesos remained a small city. It then expanded to lands in northwest Crimea, incorporating the colony of Kerkinitida and constructing numerous fortifications.[15] In 2013, Chersonesus was listed as a World Heritage Site.
Kerkinitida is the earliest colony in northwestern Taurica, located near present-day Yevpatoria. It was founded around the turn of the 6th-5th centuries BC, possibly by Dorians of Herakleia Pontika, or by another unknown Ionian city-state. Until the middle of 4th century BC the city was a small independent city–state, before being incorporated into the city-state of Chersonesos. In the 2nd century BC Kerkinitida was captured by the Scythians, but later retaken in the second campaign of Diophantus. According to archeological finds, the city lasted until around the turn of the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.[15]
Bosporan Kingdom
According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31), the region of the Cimmerian Bosporus was governed from 480 BC to 438 BC by a line called the Archaeanactidae, probably a ruling family. The Archaeanactids gave way to the tyrant Spartocus (438 BC - 431 BC), apparently a Thracian. He founded a dynasty which seems to have endured until around 110 BC. The Spartocids have left many inscriptions which indicate that the earlier members of the house ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of various native tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and other branches of the Maeotae. The texts, inscriptions and coins do not supply sufficient material for a complete list of these monarchs.
Satyrus (431 BC - 387 BC), Spartocus' successor, established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum to his dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a serious commercial rival because of its ice-free port and proximity to the grain fields of eastern Crimea. It was reserved for his son Leucon (387 BC - 347 BC) to take this city. He was succeeded by his two sons conjointly, Spartocus II, and Paerisades; the former died in 342, and his brother reigned alone until 310. Then followed a civil war, in which Satyrus defeated his younger brother Eumelus at the Battle of the River Thatis in 310 BC, but then was killed, giving Eumelus the throne.[16]
His successor was Spartocus III (303 BC - 283 BC) and after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family names, but no certain order can be assigned. It is known that the last of them, Paerisades V, unable to make headway against the power of the natives, in 108 BC called in the help of Diophantus, general of Mithridates the Great of Pontus, promising to hand over his kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a Scythian named Saumacus who led a rebellion against him.
The house of Spartocus was well known as a line of enlightened and wise princes;[citation needed] although Greek opinion could not deny that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as dynasts. They maintained close relations with Athens, their best customer for the Bosporan grain export, of which Leucon I set the staple at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special privileges. The Attic orators make numerous references to this. In return, the Athenians granted him citizenship and set up decrees in honour of him and his sons.
In the 2nd century BC, the eastern part of the Tauric Chersonese became part of the Bosporan Kingdom.
In the 1st century BC, after his defeat by Pompey in 63 BC, Mithradates VI, King of Pontus, fled with a small army from Colchis (modern Georgia) over the Caucasus Mountains to Crimea and made plans to raise yet another army to take on the Romans. His eldest living son, Machares, viceroy of Cimmerian Bosporus, was unwilling to aid his father. Mithradates had Machares killed, and took the throne of the Bosporan Kingdom. Mithradates then ordered conscription and preparations for war. In 63 BC, Pharnaces II, his younger son, led a rebellion against his father, joined by Roman exiles in the core of Mithridates' Pontic army. Mithradates withdrew to the citadel in Panticapaeum, where he committed suicide the same year. Pompey the Great buried Mithradates in the rock-cut tombs of his ancestors in Amasya, the old capital of Pontus.
Roman Empire
After the death of Mithridates, Pharnaces (63 BC - 47 BC) made his submission to Pompey, then tried to regain his dominion during the civil war, but was defeated by Caesar at Zela and later killed by a former governor of his.
A pretender, Asander married his daughter Dynamis, and in spite of Roman nominees, ruled as archon, and later as king, until 17 BC. After his death, Dynamis was compelled to marry a Roman usurper called Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa interfered and set Polemon I of Pontus (16 BC - 8 BC) in his place. Dynamis died in 14 BC and Polemon ruled until 8 BC.
After Polemon's death, Tiberius Julius Aspurgus (8 BC - 38), son of Dynamis and Asander, succeeded him and founded a line of kings which endured with certain interruptions until 341 AD. Originally called Aspurgus, he adopted the names "Tiberius Augustus" because he enjoyed the patronage of the first two Roman emperors, Augustus and Tiberius. All of the following kings adopted these two Roman names followed by a third name, mostly of Pontic and Thracian origin (such as Kotys, Rhescuporis and Rhoemetalces), but sometimes of local origin (such as Sauromates, Eupator, Ininthimeus, Pharsanzes, Synges, Terianes, Theothorses and Rhadamsades).
As the dynasty descended from Mithridates VI through Aspurgus, the kings adopted the "Pontic era" introduced by Mithridates, which started with 297 BC; this era was used to date coins. Bosporan kings struck coinage throughout the kingdom period, which included gold staters bearing portraits of the respective Roman emperors. However this coinage became increasing debased in the 3rd century. The rulers' names and dates are fairly well known, though scarcely any events of their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered the eastern half of Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended along the east coast of the Maeotian marshes to Tanais at the mouth of the Don, a great market for trade with the interior.
They carried on a perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported by their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of garrisons and fleets. In 63 AD, for unknown reasons, the Roman Emperor Nero deposed Tiberius Julius Cotys I from his throne: the Bosporan Kingdom became a Roman province from 63-68. In 68 AD, the new Roman emperor, Galba, restored the Bosporan Kingdom to Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis I.
During the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd centuries AD, Taurica was host to Roman legions and colonists in Charax. Charax was founded under Vespasian with the intention of protecting Chersonesus and other Bosporean trade centres from the Scythians. The Roman colony was protected by a vexillation of the Legio I Italica; it also hosted a detachment of the Legio XI Claudia at the end of the 2nd century. The camp was abandoned by the Romans in the mid-3rd century.
Taurica remained a vassal state of the Romans for nearly five centuries, and the southern shores remained under Byzantine control until the AD 13th century. At times, rival kings of some other races arose and probably produced some disorganization. At one of these periods (255), the Goths and Borani were able to seize Bosporan shipping and raid the shores of Anatolia.
With the coins of the last king, Tiberius Julius Rhescuporis VI, in 341 AD, materials for a connected history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to an end. The kingdom probably succumbed to the Huns, who defeated the nearby Alans in 375/376 AD and moved rapidly westwards, bringing destruction in their wake.
See also
References
- ^ Tripp, Edward (Oct 1, 1974). The Meridian Handbook of Classical Mythology. Penguin USA. p. 324.
- ^ a b "Tauri". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
- ^ Minns, Ellis Hovell (1913). Scythians and Greeks: A Survey of Ancient History and Archaeology on the North Coast of the Euxine from the Danube to the Caucasus. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Tsetskhladze, Gocha R, ed. (2001). North Pontic Archaeology. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 167. ISBN 90-04-12041-6.
{{cite book}}:|first=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Greek Gold". Hermitage Museum. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
- ^ Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond (1959). A history of Greece to 322 B.C. Clarendon Press. p. 109. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
- ^ a b Twardecki, Alfred. "The Bosporan Kingdom". Polish Archaeological Mission “Tyritake”. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
- ^ Sear, David R. (1978). Greek Coins and Their Values . Volume I: Europe (pp. 168-169). Seaby Ltd., London. ISBN 0 900652 46 2
- ^ "Panticapaeum". Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
- ^ "Feodosiya". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
- ^ The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (eds. Richard Stillwell, William L. MacDonald, Marian Holland McAllister).
- ^ "The official website of the Hermitage Museum archaeological expedition in Myrmekion". Retrieved 30 March 2014.Template:Ru icon
- ^ Zin'ko, Viktor N. (2006). "The Chora of Nymphaion (6th Century BC-6th Century AD)". In Bilde, Pia Guldager; Stolba, Vladimir F. (eds.). Surveying the Greek Chora. The Black Sea Region in a Comparative Perspective. Black Sea Studies. Vol. 4. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus University Press. pp. 289–308.
- ^ "University of Texas at Austin Institute of Classical Archaeology Chersonesos project". Retrieved 31 March 2014.
- ^ a b "History and the monetary business of the antique cities of Tauria". Odessa Numismatics Museum.
- ^ Head, Duncan. Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars. p. 70.