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Campylobacter

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Campylobacter
Campylobacter jejuni
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Proteobacteria
Class:
Epsilonproteobacteria
Order:
Campylobacterales
Family:
Campylobacteraceae
Genus:
Campylobacter

Sebald and Véron 1963
Species

C. coli
C. concisus
C. curvus
C. fetus
C. gracilis
C. helveticus
C. hominis
C. hyointestinalis
C. insulaenigrae
C. jejuni
C. lanienae
C. lari
C. laridis
C. mucosalis
C. rectus
C. showae
C. sputorum
C. upsaliensis

Campylobacter (meaning "twisted bacteria") is a genus of microaerophilic Gram-negative bacteria. Motile, with either unipolar or bipolar flagella, the organisms have a characteristic spiral/corkscrew appearance (see photo) and are oxidase-positive.[1] Campylobacter jejuni is now recognized as one of the main causes of bacterial foodborne disease in many developed countries.[2] At least a dozen species of Campylobacter have been implicated in human disease, with C. jejuni and C. coli the most common.[1] C. fetus is a cause of spontaneous abortions in cattle and sheep, as well as an opportunistic pathogen in humans.[3]

History

The symptoms of Campylobacter infections were described in 1886 in infants by Theodor Escherich.[4] These infections were named cholera infantum,[4] or summer complaint.[5] The genus was first discovered in 1963;[6] however, the organism was not isolated until 1972.[4] Infections [in the United States] from campylobacter—which is linked to many foods, including poultry, raw milk and produce – has risen up to 14 percent in 2012 compared to 2006-2008. They were at their highest level since 2000.[7]

Genome and proteome

The genomes of several Campylobacter species have been sequenced.[8] The first Campylobacter genome to be sequenced was C. jejuni, in 2000.[9]

Campylobacter species contain two flagellin genes in tandem for motility, flaA and flaB. These genes undergo intergenic recombination, further contributing to their virulence.[10] Nonmotile mutants do not colonize.[citation needed]

Sequence features. Comparative genomic analysis has led to the identification of 15 proteins which are uniquely found in members of the genus Campylobacter and serve as molecular markers for the genus. Eighteen other proteins were also found which were present in all species except Campylobacter fetus, which is the deepest branching Campylobacter species. A conserved insertion has also been identified which is present in all Campylobacter species except C. fetus. Additionally, 28 proteins have been identified present only in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, indicating a close relationship between these two species. Five other proteins have also been identified which are only found in C. jejuni and serve as molecular markers for the species.[11]

Bacteriophage

The confusing taxonomy of Campylobacter over the past decades make it difficult to identify the earliest reports of Campylobacter bacteriophages. Bacteriophages specific to the species we now know as C. coli and C. fetus (previously Vibrio coli and Vibrio fetus), were isolated from cattle and pigs during the 1960s.[12][13][14][15]

Pathogenesis

Main article: Campylobacteriosis

Campylobacteriosis is an infection by Campylobacter.[16] The common routes of transmission are fecal-oral, ingestion of contaminated food or water, and the eating of raw meat. It produces an inflammatory, sometimes bloody, diarrhea, periodontitis[17] or dysentery syndrome, mostly including cramps, fever and pain. The infection is usually self-limiting and in most cases, symptomatic treatment by liquid and electrolyte replacement is enough in human infections. The use of antibiotics, on the other hand, is controversial .[citation needed] Symptoms typically last for five to seven days.[citation needed]

The sites of tissue injury include the jejunum, the ileum, and the colon. Most strains of C jejuni produce a toxin (cytolethal distending toxin) that hinders the cells from dividing and activating the immune system. This helps the bacteria to evade the immune system and survive for a limited time in the cells. A cholera-like enterotoxin was once thought to be also made, but this appears not to be the case. The organism produces diffuse, bloody, edematous, and exudative enteritis. Although rarely has the infection been considered a cause of hemolytic uremic syndrome and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, no unequivocal case reports exist. In some cases, a Campylobacter infection can be the underlying cause of Guillain–Barré syndrome. Gastrointestinal perforation is a rare complication of ileal infection.[18]

Treatment

Diagnosis of the illness is made by testing a specimen of faeces (bowel motion).

  • Standard treatment is now azithromycin. Quinolone antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin are no longer as effective due to resistance.[citation needed]
  • Dehydrated children may require intravenous (by vein) fluid treatment in a hospital.
  • The illness is contagious, and children must be kept at home until they have been clear of symptoms for at least two days.
  • Good hygiene is important to avoid contracting the illness or spreading it to others.
  • Intestinal perforation is very rare; increased abdominal pain and collapse require immediate medical attention.

Known risks

In January 2013, the UK's Food Standards Agency warned that two-thirds of all raw chicken bought from UK shops was contaminated with campylobacter, affecting an estimated half a million people annually and killing approximately 100.[19]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Ryan, Kenneth James; Ray, C. George, eds. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology: An Introduction to Infectious Diseases (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 378–80. ISBN 978-0-8385-8529-0.
  2. ^ Moore, John E.; Corcoran, Deborah; Dooley, James S.G.; Fanning, Séamus; Lucey, Brigid; Matsuda, Motoo; McDowell, David A.; Mégraud, Francis; Millar, B.; O'Mahony, Rebecca; O'Riordan, Lisa; O'Rourke, Michele; Rao, Juluri R.; Rooney, Paul J.; Sails, Andrew; Whyte, Paul (2005). "Campylobacter". Veterinary Research. 36 (3): 351–82. doi:10.1051/vetres:2005012. PMID 15845230.
  3. ^ Sauerwein, R. W.; Bisseling, A. M.; Horrevorts, J. (1993). "Septic abortion associated withCampylobacter fetus subspeciesfetus infection: Case report and review of the literature". Infection. 21 (5): 331–3. doi:10.1007/BF01712458. PMID 8300253.
  4. ^ a b c Samie, A.; Obi, C.L.; Barrett, L.J.; Powell, S.M.; Guerrant, R.L. (2007). "Prevalence of Campylobacter species, Helicobacter pylori and Arcobacter species in stool samples from the Venda region, Limpopo, South Africa: Studies using molecular diagnostic methods". Journal of Infection. 54 (6): 558–66. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2006.10.047. PMID 17145081.
  5. ^ Condran, Gretchen A.; Murphy, Jennifer (2008). "Defining and Managing Infant Mortality: A Case Study of Philadelphia, 1870–1920". Social Science History. 32 (4): 473–513. doi:10.1215/01455532-2008-006.
  6. ^ Debruyne, Lies; Gevers, Dirk; Vandamme, Peter (2008). "Taxonomy of the Family Campylobacteraceae". In Nachamkin, Irving; Szymanski, Christine M.; Blaser, Martin J. (eds.). Campylobacter (3rd ed.). ASM Press. pp. 3–25. ISBN 978-1-55581-437-3. hdl:1854/LU-680725. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ "Infections from some foodborne germs increased, while others remained unchanged in 2012". Centers for Disease Control. April 18, 2013. Retrieved April 19, 2013.
  8. ^ Fouts, Derrick E.; Mongodin, Emmanuel F.; Mandrell, Robert E.; Miller, William G.; Rasko, David A.; Ravel, Jacques; Brinkac, Lauren M.; Deboy, Robert T.; Parker, Craig T.; Daugherty, Sean C.; Dodson, Robert J.; Durkin, A. Scott; Madupu, Ramana; Sullivan, Steven A.; Shetty, Jyoti U.; Ayodeji, Mobolanle A.; Shvartsbeyn, Alla; Schatz, Michael C.; Badger, Jonathan H.; Fraser, Claire M.; Nelson, Karen E. (2005). "Major Structural Differences and Novel Potential Virulence Mechanisms from the Genomes of Multiple Campylobacter Species". PLoS Biology. 3 (1): e15. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030015. PMC 539331. PMID 15660156.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  9. ^ Parkhill, J.; Wren, B. W.; Mungall, K.; Ketley, J. M.; Churcher, C.; Basham, D.; Chillingworth, T.; Davies, R. M.; Feltwell, T.; Holroyd, S.; Jagels, K.; Karlyshev, A. V.; Moule, S.; Pallen, M. J.; Penn, C. W.; Quail, M. A.; Rajandream, M-A.; Rutherford, K. M.; Van Vliet, A. H. M.; Whitehead, S.; Barrell, B. G. (2000). "The genome sequence of the food-borne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni reveals hypervariable sequences". Nature. 403 (6770): 665–8. doi:10.1038/35001088. PMID 10688204.
  10. ^ Grant, Christopher C. R.; Konkel, Michael. E.; Cieplak Jr, Witold; Tompkins, Lucy S. (1993-05-01). "Role of Flagella in Adherence, Internalization, and Translocation of Campylobacter jejuni in Nonpolarized and Polarized Epithelial Cell Cultures". Infection and Immunity. 61 (5): 1764–71. PMC 280763. PMID 8478066.
  11. ^ Gupta, Radhey S (2006). "Molecular signatures (unique proteins and conserved indels) that are specific for the epsilon proteobacteria (Campylobacterales)". BMC Genomics. 7: 167. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-7-167. PMC 1557499. PMID 16817973.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  12. ^ Firehammer, B.D. and Border, M. (1968) Isolation of temper- ate bacteriophages from Vibrio fetus. Am J Vet Res 29, 2229–2235
  13. ^ Fletcher, R.D. (1968) Activity and morphology of Vibrio coli phage. Am J Vet Res 26, 361–364
  14. ^ Fletcher, R. and Bertschinger, H. (1964) A method of isolation of Vibrio coli from swine faecal material by selective filtration. Zentralbl Veterinaeromed B 11, 169–174.
  15. ^ Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 21447013, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid= 21447013 instead.
  16. ^ http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/campylobacter_g.htm[dead link][full citation needed]
  17. ^ Humphrey, Tom; O'Brien, Sarah; Madsen, Mogens (2007). "Campylobacters as zoonotic pathogens: A food production perspective". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 117 (3): 237–57. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.01.006. PMID 17368847.
  18. ^ Jassim, S.S.; Malik, A.; Aldridge, A. (2011). "Small bowel perforation: An unusual cause". Grand Rounds. 11: 17–9. doi:10.1102/1470-5206.2011.0006.
  19. ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/foodanddrinknews/9820838/FSA-warns-that-chicken-bacteria-could-be-next-meat-scandal.html[full citation needed]
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