Paternal depression
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| Paternal Depression | |
|---|---|
| Other names | Postpartum Depression, Postnatal Depression |
| Specialty | Psychiatry |
| Symptoms | Extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, changes in sleeping or eating patterns, crying episodes, irritability |
| Usual onset | Week to month after childbirth |
| Causes | Unclear, possible past experiences of trauma |
| Risk factors | Prior postpartum depression, bipolar disorder, family history of depression, psychological stress, complications of childbirth, lack of support, drug use disorder |
| Diagnostic method | Based on symptoms |
| Differential diagnosis | Baby blues |
| Treatment | Counselling, medications |
| Frequency | ~8.2% of births |
Paternal depression is a psychological disorder derived from parental depression. Paternal depression affects the mood of men; fathers and caregivers in particular. ‘Father’ may refer to the biological father, social parent, step-parent or simply the carer of the child. This mood disorder accompanies symptoms similar to postpartum depression (PPD) including anxiety, insomnia, irritability, consistent breakdown and crying episodes and low energy[1]. This may negatively impact family relationships and the upbringing of children. Parents diagnosed with parental depression often experience increased stress and anxiety levels during early pregnancy, labor and postpartum[2]. Those with parental depression may have developed it early on but some are diagnosed later on from when the child is a toddler to a young adult.
The causes of paternal depression are unknown; however, previous experiences of mental disorders and family history could contribute to the development of paternal depression. Other factors including stress overload, sleep deprivation and unhappy relationships with partner or children may also affect the prevalence of it. Although symptoms of feeling down, baby blues and a lack of sleep is common amongst new parents, diagnosis of depression is appropriate when symptoms are severe and ongoing.
Most health literature provides studies and research on maternal depression and women with postnatal depression. However, there is limited information about men and mental illness. Modern society and culture have changed social stigma of men with mental illness due to changes in gender role perspectives.
Signs and Symptoms compared to Women
When comparing the anxiety level of first-time parents, women tend to have higher levels of anxiety. This is applicable to women immediately after birth and in the first three trimesters. Compared to women, men experience greater anxiety levels within the first 3 months of childbirth and tend to develop paternal depression as the children grows older. Although depression can affect individuals in different ways, there are some gender differences between parents. Women tend to have similar depressive symptoms over all three trimesters, however in men, significant changes were discovered between the 1st and 2nd trimester, however not within the 2nd trimester to 3 months postpartum[3]. Women are more likely to experience symptoms such as a developing an eating disorder, irritability, crying episodes, extreme sadness, bioplar disorder and low energy levels[4]. However, men are more likely to experience substance abuse, a higher frequency of irritability, anger attacks and becoming abusive and violent. Men may also partake in risky behaviour such as drink driving. Despite common symptoms of loss of appetite and insomnia, women are more likely to display atypical behaviours such as oversleeping and overeating[5]. Successful suicide levels are also more often associated with fathers rather than with mothers.
Causes
In general, the causes of maternal and paternal depression are similar. Common causes include having limited emotional and social support, experiencing financial stress, having an unsatisfying relationship with partner, finding difficulty adjusting to parenting, unexpected events in child development and current histories of mental disorders and drug abuse[6]. According to a study conducted in 2005, 65% of males identified with depressive symptoms when the child was 8 weeks old[7]. The causes of paternal depression included stress overload, caring responsively to the children, undertaking multiple family and social roles and a decrease in direct father to child interaction. The implications of paternal depression largely affect the wellbeing during the child’s early and behavioural development with the research discovering that young boys are most vulnerable to it. This is caused by boys having the tendency to be hyperactive and harder to discipline. In turn, causing emotional symptoms of concern and frustration to the individual. However, this is adversely different for mothers. The cause and effect relationship between a boy’s behavioural development and depression in fathers is lineal with potential reasoning in the young boy’s sensitivity to his father’s discipline.
Prevalence
Statistics of men in the US
Studies shows that 14.1% of men suffer from postpartum depression[8]. Outside of the US, 8.2% of men experience depressive symptoms. The observation of postpartum depression could be categorised into the time blocks of paternal depression first trimester to 6 months gestational age, >6 months to birth, immediate postpartum to 3 months postpartum, >3 to 6 months postpartum and >6 to 12 months postpartum. During the period of 3 to 6 months postpartum, the highest rate of 25.6% was recorded in men whilst the lowest occurred during the first three months of postpartum at 7.7%. The high levels of depression during the 3 to 6 months postpartum period is also similar amongst women. These results could be explained by the strenuosity of 3 to 6 months newborn care.
Treatment
Treatment for paternal depression depends on the severity of it[9]. If experiencing baby blues, treatment can be done at home. This means being well-rested, getting alone time, eating a well-balanced diet with an adequate amount of water and exercise, accepting social support from partner, friends and family[10]. Joining local community groups and creating bonds with other fathers experiencing similar symptoms will decrease stress and create a sense of relief. However, treatment of mild to severe depression would require further action.
Treatment offered for parents with depression are similar to other mental disorders. This includes taking antidepressants or receiving psychotherapy[11]. Those experiencing moderate paternal depression should seek therapy from a mental health professional. This may be a psychiatrist, counselor or psychologist. However, if experiencing intense depression, medical intervention may be necessary[12]. Consult about your health professional about medication including mood stabilizers. Other methods to recovery include electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)[13]. This releases short electrical currents to the brain, allowing it to relax. It is recommended when all other procedures have been ineffective.
Society and Culture
The increase of paternal depression could be explained by women’s increasing input into social roles[14]. Women contributing to workforce leads to more fathers becoming involved with family life. This increases the possibility of developing paternal depression. Paternal depression is a frequently neglected topic. It challenges social normalities of gender roles, the stereotypes of fatherhood, masculinity and social stigma on men with mental health. The progressive perception of fathers being the primary parent leads to further increase in father involvement.
National policies have not progressed with the changes in gender roles. This includes the difficulties in receiving of paternal leave and receiving custody[15]. This is influenced by the limited studies on fathers and depression. However, the recent increase of research into paternal depression shows society’s views on increasing gender equality in social roles and the changing culture on masculine and feminine concepts.
Stigma of Men with Mental Illness
There is often stigma around mental illness, especially those who are men. Severe stigma usually takes forms of discrimination, prejudice and stereotypes. These categorise how society view mental disorders. Paired with gender roles and the concepts of masculinity and femininity, society view men with mental impairments as weak and vulnerable and not the stereotypical alpha male[16]. This then affect how men view their own mental disability, influencing the seeking of treatment and acceptance of the illness. This cause and effect relationship can create a cycle, leading men to be disheartened and ashamed of reaching out.
References
- ^ Mickelson, Kristin D.; Biehle, Susanne N.; Chong, Alexandra; Gordon, Alynn (2017-03-01). "Perceived Stigma of Postpartum Depression Symptoms in Low-Risk First-Time Parents: Gender Differences in a Dual-Pathway Model". Sex Roles. 76 (5): 306–318. doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0603-4. ISSN 1573-2762.
- ^ "Wolters Kluwer Health - Article Landing Page". pt.wkhealth.com. doi:10.1097/01720610-201302000-00009. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
- ^ "ScienceDirect". www.sciencedirect.com. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.02.007. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
- ^ Nierenberg, Cari; October 27, Contributing writer |; ET, 2016 03:22am. "7 Ways Depression Differs in Men and Women". Live Science. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Silverstein, Brett; Angst, Jules (2015). "Evidence for Broadening Criteria for Atypical Depression Which May Define a Reactive Depressive Disorder". Psychiatry Journal. 2015: 1–6. doi:10.1155/2015/575931. ISSN 2314-4327. PMC 4516843. PMID 26258131.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ "beyondblue". www.beyondblue.org.au. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
- ^ O'Connor, Thomas G.; Evans, Jonathan; Stein, Alan; Ramchandani, Paul (2005-06-25). "Paternal depression in the postnatal period and child development: a prospective population study". The Lancet. 365 (9478): 2201–2205. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66778-5. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 15978928.
- ^ "ScienceDirect". www.sciencedirect.com. doi:10.1016/j.jmwh.2010.06.015. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
- ^ Kanopy (Firm), Recognizing and treating postpartum depression., OCLC 897768040, retrieved 2019-05-16
- ^ "Postpartum Depression: A Guide to Symptoms & Treatment". PsyCom.net - Mental Health Treatment Resource Since 1986. Retrieved 2019-05-16.
- ^ "Postpartum depression - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 2019-05-16.
- ^ Cameron, Emily E.; Hunter, Dana; Sedov, Ivan D.; Tomfohr-Madsen, Lianne M. (2017-6). "What do dads want? Treatment preferences for paternal postpartum depression". Journal of Affective Disorders. 215: 62–70. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.031.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Verwijk, Esmée; Comijs, Hannie C.; Kok, Rob M.; Spaans, Harm-Pieter; Stek, Max L.; Scherder, Erik J.A. (2012-11). "Neurocognitive effects after brief pulse and ultrabrief pulse unilateral electroconvulsive therapy for major depression: A review". Journal of Affective Disorders. 140 (3): 233–243. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.02.024.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Fisher, Sheehan D. (2016-02-16). "Paternal Mental Health: Why Is It Relevant?". American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 11 (3): 200–211. doi:10.1177/1559827616629895. ISSN 1559-8276. PMC 6125083. PMID 30202331.
- ^ Qadar, By Sana (2019-05-05). "Three fathers' experiences taking parental leave - ABC Life". www.abc.net.au. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
- ^ Boysen, Guy A. (2017-01-02). "Exploring the relation between masculinity and mental illness stigma using the stereotype content model and BIAS map". The Journal of Social Psychology. 157 (1): 98–113. doi:10.1080/00224545.2016.1181600. ISSN 0022-4545. PMID 27110638.