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Self-Portrait as a Soldier

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See also: Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
Self-Portrait as a Soldier
Ernst Ludwig Kirchner - Selbstbildnis als Soldat
ArtistErnst Ludwig Kirchner
Yearca. 1915
MediumOil on canvas
Dimensions69 cm × 61 cm (27 in × 24 in)
LocationAllen Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin, Ohio, United States

'Self-Portrait as a Soldier', or ‘Selbstbildnis als Soldat’, is an Expressionist painting by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner. Kirchner created this self-depiction in 1915, following his medical discharge from military service during the First World War.[1] The artwork measures 69 centimetres in height by 61 centimetres in width and was created utilising oil paint on canvas. [2] The painting was first exhibited in the ‘Städtische Galerie’ in Germany between 1916-1919 and currently resides at the Allen Memorial Art Museum in Ohio USA.[3] Critical interpretations of the painting attribute its stark Expressionist style and myriad of symbolic elements to the socio-political turbulence of Germany during the First World War. 'Self Portrait as a Soldier' may be viewed as testimony to Kirchner’s volatile mental and physical health and as a critique of the chaotic instability of Germany during the early 20th century.[4]

Subject Matter

‘Self Portrait as a Soldier’ depicts Kirchner as a gaunt and utilitarian soldier wearing the 75th Mansfeld Field Artillery Regiment uniform.[5] He stands in an artist’s studio, positioned prominently within the artwork’s foreground. A nude female figure, situated in front of a black canvas, is depicted behind him. The soldier holds up the bloodied stump of his right hand, which is juxtaposed against depiction of his left hand as deformed and claw-like.[6] The soldier's military uniform is painted using rich blue and red colours. Skin tones of both the soldier and female figure are a sickly yellow. The artwork has a cropped composition, created by framing the figures with bright orange and green hues used in the background.[7] Both Kirchner and the nude female figure are not drawn to scale. The Allen Memorial Art Museum cites that the “soldier has an elongated face and other blurred features, while the woman’s shoulders are disproportionate to that of a true human form.”[8]

Historical and Socio-Political Context

Kirchner’s ‘Self-Portrait as a Soldier’ was painted in 1915, a year after the commencement of the First World War (WW1). The impetus for Germany’s involvement in WW1 was its alliance with Austria-Hungary who declared war on Serbia on the 28th of July 1914, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.[9] The German invasion of Belgium in 1914 saw Britain declare war on Germany. The alliance system of WW1 pitted the Centrals Powers, encompassing Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria against the Allied Powers which compromised Russia, France, Great Britain and the United States.[10] Throughout the war non-material and material living standards and civil liberties in Germany were extremely poor. Mary Cox’s ‘The First World War and the Blockade of Germany, 1914–1919’ cites “that economic warfare in Germany was premeditated and designed to swiftly destroy German’s entire economic and financial system.” As well as “the destruction of Germany’s communication and financial systems”. [11] Cox also states that “the blockade was to blame for the listlessness of German youth and their increased involvement in criminal activities”.[12] Matthias Blum contends that the “economic and physical deprivation” of WW1 left “deep scars of various kinds” upon Germany.[13] Ultimately, Britain’s naval blockade against Germany established to restrict the supply of food, oil and weaponry from 1914-1915 caused “deliberate starvation of citizens”, disease and death amounting to comprehensive reduction of socio-cultural and political stability.[14]

Trench warfare characterised WW1 and resulted in extended periods of gunfire across trenches. Artillery fire caused what is now recognised as Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The mental and physical health of soldiers was further jeopardised by the squalor of trenches where corpses, rats, poisonous water, freezing cold temperatures, disease and malnutrition were common.[15] Kirchner was discharged from active military service due to physical and mental incapacity. Subsequently, he suffered from “war neurosis and depression” which fuelled drug and alcohol addictions leading to severely diminished health in the years following 1915.[16]

Three close-up perspectives of'Self-Portrait as a Soldier'.

Visual Analysis

Nude female figure in the background of 'Self-Portrait as a Soldier'

‘Self Portrait as a Soldier’ depicts Kirchner smoking a cigarette which hangs loosely from his lips. Common analysis of this suggests that Kirchner has chosen to depict himself within a state of thought. This draws on firm precedence for the act of smoking as “a symbol for metamorphic imagination, while tobacco itself intoxicates the mind”.[17] Within ‘Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Self Portrait as a Soldier’, Peter Springer postulates that the soldier’s dark blue eyes emanate lifelessness and emphasise constant preoccupation with the horrors of war through their reflection of the blue military uniform.[18] Kirchner uses an intense bright blue to create the uniform’s fabric. This tonal choice sharply contrasts with the lighter, sickly yellow hues of the soldier’s skin. Critical interpretation of the work stresses how these colour choices drain the soldier’s face of vitality which emphasise his weakness and despondency.[19] In ‘The diagnosis of art: Ernest Ludwig Kirchner’s nervous breakdown’ by Jeffery. K Aronoson, and Manoj Ramachandram, the use of jaundice green and gory red colours are said to highlight that the injury is recent and unhealed. Much like the psychological scars of Kirchner’s military service.[20] Kirchner has juxtaposed his stump against the long, distorted fingers of his left hand which appears claw like. Art historians have speculated that distortion of these fingers is intended to create a paintbrush for a hand.[21] For many art historians, Kirchner’s fictitious self-depiction as an amputee is notable. The imagery of self-amputation may underscore the loss and fear felt by Kirchner regarding his artistic abilities and manhood following military service.[22] Behind his self-depiction Kirchner has included a naked female figure. The use of harsh black outlines to define the woman’s emaciated figure emulate strong Primitivist influence.[23] Peter Springer, among others, suggests that the relationship between Kirchner’s self-depiction and the female figure hints at tension and animosity.[24] It is proposed that the differences in scale between the two subjects emphasises the corruption of power and imbalance of gendered autonomy and responsibility.[25]

The careful selection and amalgamation of visual and symbolic features in ‘Self Portrait as a Soldier’ can be read as Kirchner’s ultimate condemnation of military conscription.[26] The Allen Memorial Art Museum propound that Kirchner’s exaggerated depiction of the severe psychological and physical consequences of military service underlie an “unshakeable, almost pathological fear of the effects of war on himself as an artists and human being”.[27] Similarly, Claudia Siebrecht divulges that “through his art, Kirchner revealed himself to the world as a man crippled by the experience of war, and as someone whose pre-war existence and masculine self-had been eradicated.” [28]

Style and Techniques

‘Self-Portrait as a Soldier’ is marked by Kirchner’s distinctive Expressionist style and affinity for Primitivist influences.

Expressionism

Expressionism flourished between approximately 1905 to 1920 within Europe, emerging in Germany prior to WW1. Kirchner was a founding member and prominent advocate for Die Brüke, an Expressionist group founded in 1905. Expressionism was concerned with the expression of emotions and heightened individuality in opposition to bourgeois life fuelled by industrialisation and urbanisation.[29] The movement symbolised artistic revolt against traditional aesthetics, techniques and appraisal of art.[30] Expressionism advocated the expression of one’s “internal emotion rather than external impressions”.[31] The amplification and distortion of form and colour, often non-naturalistic in hue, was central to Expressionism. Kirchner’s ‘Self-Portrait as a Soldier’ epitomises Expressionism through depiction of the horrors of war and of Kirchner’s internal psyche and individual symbolic reflection upon anxiety, disability and anguish.[32] Technical application of oil paint to create ‘Self Portrait as a Soldier’ also relays Expressionist influence. Peter Springer states that the work’s thin, sharp directional lines and the perceived volatility of paint application evoke Kirchner’s nervous activity in creating the work.[33]

Primitivism

‘Self-Portrait as a Soldier’ also exhibits Primitivist influence, notably through Kirchner’s androgynous naked female figure and the use of thin, sharp outlines to emphasise the “sketchy abstraction, mask-like rigidity and stark stylisation” of form.[34] “Primitive Art”, pertaining to the art and ritual objects of ancient cultures, notably from African or Central Asian regions, was as great passion of Kirchner’s and a further reason for the denunciation of his art as ‘degenerate’ during the Nazi regime.[35]

Technical Notes

The Allen Memorial Art Museum’s catalogue (AMAM) provides key technical notes upon ‘Self-Portrait as a Soldier’. The museum cites that “paint is applied evenly with visible brushstrokes completely covering the ground. Forms are outlined in black; colours are worked wet-in-wet.”[36] With regards to the presentation and preservation of the work, AMAM’s catalogue states that “the original plain-weave canvas was line, re-stretched on an ICA-type spring stretcher, and coated with a synthetic varnish in 1956”.[37] The painting is in good condition apart from observation that “the back of the lining canvas was treated with an aluminium paint and the edges covered with black tape. This tape has since caused some staining to the perimeter of the original paint surface.”[38]Ultimately, AMAM cites that “minor in-painting and fills at the corners and along the top edge” of the artwork are the only significant signs of deterioration.[39]

Provenance and Exhibitions

Provenance

[40][41]
Year Gallery or Individual in possession City Country
1916-1919    Städtische Galerie

(Dresden City Art Gallery)   

Dresden    Germany
1919    Obtained by Art dealer Ludwig Schames Frankfurt Germany
1919-1937 Städel Museum

(Also known as the Städelsches Kunstinstitut and Stâdtische Galerie)   

Frankfurt    Germany
1937-1943    Confiscated by National Socialists during Nazi regime (Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda) after classification as "Degenerate art". Stored in a warehouse alongside other such illegal artwork     Berlin Germany
1943-1945    Kurt Feldhäusser    Germany
1945-unknown    Marie Feldhäusser (mother of Kurt who acquired his collection upon his death during a German air raid) New York     United States
Unknown-1950    Weyhe Gallery     Brooklyn, New York     United States
1950-present     Allen Memorial Art Museum (Oberlin College)    Oberlin, Ohio    United States

Exhibitions

[42][43]
Year Name of Exhibition Nature of Exhibition Gallery name City Country
1936    Der Bolschewismus    Group

Bibliotheksbau des Deutschen Museums

Munich Germany
1937 Degenerate Art Exhibition    Group The German Institute of Archaeology located in the Hofgarten Munich Germany
1939 Grosse Antibolschewistische

(Great Anti-Bolshevik Exhibition)   

Group Organised by the Reichspropagandaleitung this was a travelling exhibition which supported the Nazi’s ‘Anti-Bolshevik’ campaign Various Major Cities Germany
1952 In the Flat and the Round    Group Modern Art Association    Cincinnati United States
1952 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner    Individual Curt Valentin Gallery New York    United States
1954 Paintings and Drawings from Five Centuries: Collection Allen Memorial Art Museum.    Group M. Knoedler & Company New York    United States
1957 War and its Aftermath: 1914-1925. Group Busch-Reisinger Museum at Harvard University    Cambridge    United States
1958 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, German Expressionist. Individual North Carolina Museum of Art    Raleigh    United States
1960 What is Modern Art?    Group Toledo Museum of Art    Toledo    United States
1961 The logic of Modern Art    Group The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art Kansas City    United States
1962 An American University Collection: Works of Art from the Allen Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin, Ohio Group London County Council London United Kingdom
1966 Treasures from the Allen Memorial Art Museum. Group The Minneapolis Institute of Arts

Minneapolis

United States
1968-69 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner Individual Seattle Art Museum Seattle United States
1968-69 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner Individual Pasadena Art Museum and Museum of Fine Arts Boston United States
1978 German and Austrian Expressionism, Art in a Turbulent Era Group

The Museum of Contemporary Art

Chicago United States
1979-80 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner Individual National Galerie Berlin

(also shown in Munich and Zurich) 

Germany
1985 German Art in the 20th Century, Painting and Sculpture 1905-1985. Group

Royal Academy of Arts

London United Kingdom
1991 “Degenerate Art": The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany. Group Los Angeles County Museum of Art Los Angeles United States
1991 “Degenerate Art": The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany.    Group The Art Institute of Chicago Chicago United States
1991 “Degenerate Art": The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany.    Group Smithsonian Washington United States
2014 The Great war in Portraits    Group National Portrait Gallery London United Kingdom

Please note, the table inset above does not provide sufficient information regarding exhibition of 'Self-Portrait as a Soldier' from 1991 onwards owing to a lack of information provided on the Allen Memorial Art Museum website.

Classification as "Degenerate"

The confiscation and denunciation of ‘Self-Portrait as a Soldier’ by National Socialists profoundly shaped the work’s political identity and notoriety. The Nazi regime, active in Germany from 1933 to 1945, upheld a strong anti-Bolshevik agenda which amounted to vehement rejection of modern art. In 1937, Kirchner’s ‘Self-Portrait as a Soldier’, amongst other works, was confiscated by National Socialists and branded ‘degenerate’.[44] The Nazi regime “suppressed art whose content they perceived as a threat to traditional values and institutions.” [45] This facilitated elimination of many modern art movements including Dadaism, Cubism, Futurism and Constructivism.[46] The 6th division of the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda) was responsible for the confiscation and banishment of ‘Self Portrait as a Soldier’ to a Berlin warehouse.[47] In 1937 ‘Self-Portrait as a Soldier’ was displayed as part of an exhibition entitled “Degenerate Art” organised by Adolf Ziegler.[48]Kirchner’s Self-Portrait was retitled “Soldier with Whore” and exhibited alongside 650 works which were said to underpin “society's moral decay and [the] eroding [of] traditional family values”. [49] The condemnation of Kirchner’s work as “degenerate” preceded his suicide less than a year later in 1938. [50]

Further Reading and External links

Further Reading

Information on Kirchner and the German Expressionist movement

Kirchnerhaus, Aschaffenburg (German)

Expressionism

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner

World War One Germany

Primitivism

Self-Portraiture

Die-Brücke

References

Footnotes:

  1. ^ “Biography- Ernst Ludwig Kirchner” Kirchner Museum Davos. Accessed February 18, 2020. http://www.kirchnermuseum.ch/en/el-kirchner/   
  2. ^ “German Expressionist Art” Allen Memorial Art Museum, Accessed September 30, 2019. http://www2.oberlin.edu/amam/Kirchner_SelfPortrait.htm   
  3. ^ “German Expressionist Art” Allen Memorial Art Museum, Accessed September 30, 2019. http://www2.oberlin.edu/amam/Kirchner_SelfPortrait.htm   
  4. ^ Eleanor. F. Moseman. “E.L Kirchner, Czech Cubism and the Representation of Spirit in Portraiture, 1915-1918” The Space Between 4, no.1 (2008):12-34   
  5. ^ Jeffery. K Aronoson, and Manoj Ramachandram. “The Diagnosis of art: Ernest Ludwig Kirchner’s ‘nervous breakdown’” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 103, no.3 (2010) 112-113.
  6. ^ “Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as Soldier (1915)” Ever Painter Paints Himself (EPPH). Accessed February 18, 2020 https://www.everypainterpaintshimself.com/article/kirchners_self_portrait_as_soldier_1915   
  7. ^ Eleanor. F. Moseman. “E.L Kirchner, Czech Cubism and the Representation of Spirit in Portraiture, 1915-1918” The Space Between 4, no.1 (2008):12-34
  8. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 2-3
  9. ^ David. E Kaiser. “Germany the Origins of the First World War.” The Journal of Modern History 55, no.3 (1983):442-474
  10. ^ David. E Kaiser. “Germany the Origins of the First World War.” The Journal of Modern History 55, no.3 (1983):442-474
  11. ^ Nicholas Lambert accessed via Mary. E Cox.  “The First World War and the Blockade of Germany, 1914-1919”, in Hunger in War and Peace. Edited by Mary. E Cox, 1-51. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. P. 18
  12. ^ Mary. E Cox.  “The First World War and the Blockade of Germany, 1914-1919”, in Hunger in War and Peace. Edited by Mary. E Cox, 1-51. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. P. 24
  13. ^ Matthias Blum. “Government decisions before and during the First World War and the living standards in Germany during a drastic natural experiment” Explorations in Economic History 48, no.4 (2011):556-558
  14. ^ Cox, “The Blockage of Germany”, P. 18
  15. ^ Matthias Blum. “Government decisions before and during the First World War and the living standards in Germany during a drastic natural experiment” Explorations in Economic History 48, no.4 (2011):556-567
  16. ^ Thomas. W Gaehtgens and Anja Foerschner. “Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Drawings of the Apocalypse” Getty Research Journal 6 (2014): 84-85
  17. ^ “Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as Soldier (1915)” Ever Painter Paints Himself (EPPH). Accessed February 18, 2020 https://www.everypainterpaintshimself.com/article/kirchners_self_portrait_as_soldier_1915
  18. ^ Peter Springer, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Self Portrait as a Soldier. (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002.)  119-129
  19. ^ “Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Self-Portrait as a Soldier” Smart History. Accessed February 18, 2020 https://smarthistory.org/kirchner-self-portrait-as-a-soldier/
  20. ^ Jeffery. K Aronoson, and Manoj Ramachandram. “The Diagnosis of art: Ernest Ludwig Kirchner’s ‘nervous breakdown’” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 103, no.3 (2010) 112-113.
  21. ^ “Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as Soldier (1915)”, EPPH
  22. ^ Jeffery. K Aronoson, and Manoj Ramachandram. “The Diagnosis of art: Ernest Ludwig Kirchner’s ‘nervous breakdown’” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 103, no.3 (2010) 112-113.
  23. ^ L. D Ettlinger. “German Expressionism and Primitive Art." The Burlington Magazine 110, no. 781 (1968): 191-201.
  24. ^ Springer, Peter. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Self Portrait as a Soldier. (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002.) 112-140
  25. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 1- 7
  26. ^ Claudia Siebrecht, “The image of the soldier: Portrayals and concepts of martial masculinity from the Wars of liberation to the First World War in Germany” Journal of War and Cultural Studies 5, no. 3 (2012) 261-275
  27. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 1
  28. ^ Claudia Siebrecht, “The image of the soldier: Portrayals and concepts of martial masculinity from the Wars of liberation to the First World War in Germany” Journal of War and Cultural Studies 5, no. 3 (2012) 269
  29. ^ Clegg, Elizabeth “Kirchner: Expressionism and the City Dresden and Berlin 1905-1918”, Apollo Magazine 158, no. 500 (2003): 55-56
  30. ^ Clegg, Elizabeth “Kirchner: Expressionism and the City Dresden and Berlin 1905-1918”, Apollo Magazine 158, no. 500 (2003): 55-56
  31. ^ Meghan. E Mette. “Icon of Heroic “Degeneracy”: The Journey of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as a Soldier” Oberlin College Honours Theses (2016):8
  32. ^ Biography Ernst Ludwig Kirchner” Kirchner Museum Davos. Accessed Febuary 18, 2020 http://www.kirchnermuseum.ch/en/el-kirchner/
  33. ^ Springer, Kirchner, 120-140
  34. ^ Springer, Kirchner, 131-133
  35. ^ Neil Levi. " “Judge for Yourselves!"-The "Degenerate Art" Exhibition as Political Spectacle” The MIT Press 85, (1998):41-64
  36. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 2-7
  37. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 2-7
  38. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 2-8
  39. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 2-8
  40. ^ Meghan. E Mette. “Icon of Heroic “Degeneracy”: The Journey of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as a Soldier” Oberlin College Honours Theses (2016) 1-5   
  41. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 2-3   
  42. ^ “German Expressionist Art”, AMAM, 3-4
  43. ^ Meghan. E Mette. “Icon of Heroic “Degeneracy”: The Journey of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as a Soldier” Oberlin College Honours Theses (2016) 1-5   
  44. ^ Mary-Margaret Goggin. ““Decent” vs. “Degenerate” Art” Art Journal 50, no.4 (1991)84-90
  45. ^ Mary-Margaret Goggin. ““Decent” vs. “Degenerate” Art” Art Journal 50, no.4 (1991)89
  46. ^ Olaf Peters. “Fear and Propaganda: National Socialism and the Concept of “Degenerate Art”” Social Research: An International Quarterly 83, no.1 (2016)39-66
  47. ^ Olaf Peters. “Fear and Propaganda: National Socialism and the Concept of “Degenerate Art”” Social Research: An International Quarterly 83, no.1 (2016)39-66
  48. ^ Neil Levi. " “Judge for Yourselves!"-The "Degenerate Art" Exhibition as Political Spectacle” The MIT Press 85, (1998):41-64
  49. ^ Goggin, ““Decent” vs. “Degenerate” Art”, 89
  50. ^ “Biography Ernst Ludwig Kirchner” Kirchner Museum Davos. Accessed Febuary 18, 2020 http://www.kirchnermuseum.ch/en/el-kirchner/

Reference List

Abrahams, Simon. “Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as Soldier (1915)” Ever Painter Paints Himself (EPPH). Last modified 29th October 2013. https://www.everypainterpaintshimself.com/article/kirchners_self_portrait_as_soldier_1915

Aronoson, Jeffery. K and Ramachandram, Manoj. “The Diagnosis of art: Ernest Ludwig Kirchner’s ‘nervous breakdown’” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 103, no.3 (2010): 112-113.

Blum, Matthias. “Government decisions before and during the First World War and the living standards in Germany during a drastic natural experiment” Explorations in Economic History 48, no.4 (2011):556-567

Clegg, Elizabeth “Kirchner: Expressionism and the City Dresden and Berlin 1905-1918”, Apollo Magazine 158, no. 500 (2003): 55-56

Cox, Mary. E. “The First World War and the Blockade of Germany, 1914-1919”, in Hunger in War and Peace. Edited by Mary. E Cox, 1-51. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019

Ettlinger, L. D. "German Expressionism and Primitive Art." The Burlington Magazine 110, no. 781 (1968): 191-201.

Gaehtgens, Thomas. W and Foerschner, Anja. “Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Drawings of the Apocalypse” Getty Research Journal 6 (2014): 83-102

Gee, Malcom. “Ernst Ludwig Kirchner” The Burlington Magazine 145, no.1206 (2003):661-662

Goggin, Mary-Margaret. ““Decent” vs. “Degenerate” Art” Art Journal 50, no.4 (1991):84-92

Hamburger, Daniel. “German Expressionist Art” Allen Memorial Art Museum, Last modified June 13, 2015. http://www2.oberlin.edu/amam/Kirchner_SelfPortrait.htm

Kaiser, David. E. “Germany and the Origins of the First World War.” The Journal of Modern History 55, no.3 (1983):442-474

Kornfeld, E.W and Stauffer, Christine, E. “Biography Ernst Ludwig Kirchner” Kirchner Museum Davos. Last Modified 1992. http://www.kirchnermuseum.ch/en/el-kirchner/

Langely, Edwina. “The Remarkable Expressionism of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner”. AnOther. Last modified April 6, 2016. https://www.anothermag.com/art-photography/8551/the-remarkable-expressionism-of-ernst-ludwig-kirchner

Levi, Neil. " “Judge for Yourselves!"-The "Degenerate Art" Exhibition as Political Spectacle” The MIT Press 85, (1998):41-64

Mette, Meghan E. “Icon of Heroic “Degeneracy”: The Journey of Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Self-Portrait as a Soldier” Oberlin College Honours Theses (2016) 1-64

Moseman, Eleanor. F. “E.L Kirchner, Czech Cubism and the Representation of Spirit in Portraiture, 1915-1918” The Space Between 4, no.1 (2008):12-34

Peters, Olaf. “Fear and Propaganda: National Socialism and the Concept of “Degenerate Art”” Social Research: An International Quarterly 83, no.1 (2016)39-66

Roggenkamp, Shawn. “Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Self-Portrait as a Soldier” Smart History. Last modified 7th June 2016. https://smarthistory.org/kirchner-self-portrait-as-a-soldier/

Siebrecht, Claudia. “The image of the soldier: Portrayals and concepts of martial masculinity from the Wars of liberation to the First World War in Germany” Journal of War and Cultural Studies 5, no. 3 (2012): 261-275

Springer, Peter. Hand and Head: Ernst Ludwig Kirchner’s Self Portrait as a Soldier. Translated by Susan Ray. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002.



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